Padre: Robert I the Magnificent Duke of Normandy
23° Bisabuelo/ Great Grandfather de: Carlos Juan Felipe Antonio Vicente De La Cruz Urdaneta Alamo →William the Conqueror, king of England is your 23rd great grandfather.
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Que alguien sea el "primer rey normando de Inglaterra" significa que fue el primero en gobernar el país bajo la dinastía normanda, marcando una transición significativa en la historia inglesa. En este caso, se refiere a Guillermo el Conquistador (William the Conqueror), quien fue duque de Normandía y se convirtió en rey de Inglaterra tras la conquista normanda en 1066.
Guillermo derrotó al rey anglosajón Harold II en la batalla de Hastings y tomó el trono inglés, comenzando una nueva era en la que la influencia normanda transformó profundamente la cultura, el idioma, el sistema de gobierno y la arquitectura de Inglaterra. Este evento también consolidó la conexión entre Inglaterra y el continente europeo.
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William the Conqueror, king of England is your 20th great grandfather. of
→(1) Carlos Juan Felipe Antonio Vicente De La Cruz Urdaneta Alamo N°1
→(2) Morella Álamo Borges (your mother) N°3
→(3) Belén Eloina Borges Ustáriz (her mother) N°7
→(4) Belén de Jesús Ustáriz Lecuna (her mother) N°15
→(5) Miguel María Ramón de Jesús Uztáriz y Monserrate (her father) N°30
→(6) María de Guía de Jesús de Monserrate é Ibarra (his mother) N°61
→(7) Teniente Coronel Manuel José de Monserrate y Urbina (her father) N°122
→(8) Antonieta Felicita Javiera Ignacia de Urbina y Hurtado de Mendoza (his mother) N°245
→(9) Isabel Manuela Josefa Hurtado de Mendoza y Rojas Manrique (her mother) N°491
→(10) Juana de Rojas Manrique de Mendoza (her mother) N°983
→(11) Constanza de Mendoza Mate de Luna (her mother) N°1967
→(12) Mayor de Mendoza Manzanedo (her mother) N°3935
→(13) Juan Fernández De Mendoza Y Manuel (her father) N°7870
→(14) Sancha Manuel (his mother) N°15741
→(15) Sancho Manuel de Villena Castañeda, señor del Infantado y Carrión de los Céspedes (her father) N°31482
→(16) Manuel de Castilla, señor de Escalona (his father) N°62964
→(17) Saint Ferdinand III, king of Castile & León (his father) N°125928
→(18) Berenguela I la Grande, reina de Castilla (his mother) N°251857
→(19) Eleanor of England, Queen consort of Castile (her mother) N°503715
→(20) Henry II "Curtmantle", King of England (her father) N°1007430
→(21) Empress Matilda (his mother) N°2014861
→(22) Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England (her father) N°4029722
→(23) William "the Conqueror", king of England (his father) N°8.059.444
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→(®) Sousa Stradonitz Realizado por: Ing. Carlos Juan Felipe Urdaneta Alamo, MDIG)
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20° Bisabuelo/ Great Grandfather de: Carlos Juan Felipe Antonio Vicente De La Cruz Urdaneta Alamo →William the Conqueror, king of England is your 20th great grandfather.
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(Linea Materna)
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William the Conqueror, king of England is your 20th great grandfather. of
→(1) Carlos Juan Felipe Antonio Vicente De La Cruz Urdaneta Alamo N°1
→(2) Morella Álamo Borges (your mother) N°3
→(3) Belén Eloina Borges Ustáriz (her mother) N°7
→(4) Belén de Jesús Ustáriz Lecuna (her mother) N°15
→(5) Miguel María Ramón de Jesús Uztáriz y Monserrate (her father) N°30
→(6) María de Guía de Jesús de Monserrate é Ibarra (his mother) N°61
→(7) Teniente Coronel Manuel José de Monserrate y Urbina (her father) N°122
→(8) Antonieta Felicita Javiera Ignacia de Urbina y Hurtado de Mendoza (his mother) N°245
→(9) Isabel Manuela Josefa Hurtado de Mendoza y Rojas Manrique (her mother) N°491
→(10) Juana de Rojas Manrique de Mendoza (her mother) N°983
→(11) Constanza de Mendoza Mate de Luna (her mother) N°1967
→(12) Mayor de Mendoza Manzanedo (her mother) N°3935
→(13) Juan Fernández De Mendoza Y Manuel (her father) N°7870
→(14) Sancha Manuel (his mother) N°15741
→(15) Sancho Manuel de Villena Castañeda, señor del Infantado y Carrión de los Céspedes (her father) N°31482
→(16) Manuel de Castilla, señor de Escalona (his father) N°62964
→(17) Saint Ferdinand III, king of Castile & León (his father) N°125928
→(18) Berenguela I la Grande, reina de Castilla (his mother) N°251857
→(19) Eleanor of England, Queen consort of Castile (her mother) N°503715
→(20) Henry II "Curtmantle", King of England (her father) N°1007430
→(21) Empress Matilda (his mother) N°2014861
→(22) Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England (her father) N°4029722
→(23) William "the Conqueror", king of England (his father) N°8.059.444
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→(®) Sousa Stradonitz Realizado por: Ing. Carlos Juan Felipe Urdaneta Alamo, MDIG)
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William "the Conqueror" FitzRobert, Duke of Normandy, King of England MP
French: Roi d'Angleterre Guillaume FitzRobert, le Conquérant
Gender: Male
Birth: October 14, 1024
Château de Base-, Falaise, Calvados, Normandie, France
Death: September 09, 1087 (62)
Prieuré de Saint-Gervais, Rouen, Seine-Maritime, Haute-Normandie, France (Wounds suffered at the siege of Mantes)
Place of Burial: Abbatiale Saint-Étienne, Abbaye aux Hommes, Caen, Calvados, Basse-Normandie, France
Immediate Family:
Son of Robert I "the Magnificent", Duke of Normandy and Herleva of Falaise
Husband of Matilda of Flanders
Father of Robert II "Curthose", Duke of Normandy; Adelizia de Normandie, Princess of England; William II "Rufus", King of England; Cecilia, Abbess of Holy Trinity; Richard de Normandie and 5 others
Brother of Adelaide of Normandy, countess of Aumale
Half brother of Muriel de Conteville; Isabella de Conteville; Robert, Count of Mortain; Odo, Bishop of Bayeux; Jeanne de Conteville and 1 other
Added by: Roger Stephen Douthitt on February 27, 2007
Managed by: Daniel Dupree Walton and 987 others
Curated by: Jf Antoine
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Historia
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Guillermo el Conquistador[a] (c. 1028[1] - 9 de septiembre de 1087), a veces llamado Guillermo el Bastardo,[2] [b] fue el primer rey normando de Inglaterra (como Guillermo I), reinando desde 1066 hasta su muerte. Descendiente de Rollo, fue duque de Normandía (como Guillermo II)[3] desde 1035 en adelante. En 1060, después de una larga lucha, su control sobre Normandía estaba asegurado. En 1066, tras la muerte de Eduardo el Confesor, Guillermo invadió Inglaterra, llevando a un ejército franco-normando a la victoria sobre las fuerzas anglosajonas de Harold Godwinson en la batalla de Hastings, y reprimió las revueltas inglesas posteriores en lo que se conoce como la conquista normanda. El resto de su vida estuvo marcada por las luchas para consolidar su control sobre Inglaterra y sus tierras continentales, y por dificultades con su hijo mayor, Robert Curthose.
Guillermo era hijo del duque soltero Roberto I de Normandía y de su amante Herleva. Su estatus ilegítimo y su juventud le causaron algunas dificultades después de suceder a su padre, al igual que la anarquía que asoló los primeros años de su gobierno. Durante su infancia y adolescencia, los miembros de la aristocracia normanda lucharon entre sí, tanto por el control del niño duque como por sus propios fines. En 1047, Guillermo sofocó una rebelión y comenzó a establecer su autoridad sobre el ducado, un proceso que no se completó hasta alrededor de 1060. Su matrimonio en la década de 1050 con Matilde de Flandes le proporcionó un poderoso aliado en el vecino condado de Flandes. En el momento de su matrimonio, Guillermo pudo organizar el nombramiento de sus partidarios como obispos y abades en la iglesia normanda. Su consolidación del poder le permitió expandir sus horizontes, y aseguró el control del vecino condado de Maine en 1062.
En la década de 1050 y principios de la de 1060, Guillermo se convirtió en un contendiente para el trono de Inglaterra ocupado por Eduardo el Confesor, quien no tenía hijos. Había otros posibles pretendientes, incluido el poderoso conde inglés Harold Godwinson, a quien Eduardo nombró rey en su lecho de muerte en enero de 1066. Argumentando que Eduardo le había prometido previamente el trono y que Haroldo había jurado apoyar su reclamo, Guillermo construyó una gran flota e invadió Inglaterra en septiembre de 1066. Derrotó y mató decisivamente a Haroldo en la batalla de Hastings el 14 de octubre de 1066. Después de nuevos esfuerzos militares, Guillermo fue coronado rey el día de Navidad de 1066 en Londres. Hizo arreglos para el gobierno de Inglaterra a principios de 1067 antes de regresar a Normandía. Siguieron varias rebeliones infructuosas, pero el control de Guillermo sobre Inglaterra estaba casi asegurado en 1075, lo que le permitió pasar la mayor parte de su reinado en Europa continental.
William's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his son, Robert, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086, he ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey listing all of the land-holdings in England along with their pre-Conquest and current holders. He died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France, and was buried in Caen. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, settling a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his domains into one empire but continued to administer each part separately. His lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to Robert, and England went to his second surviving son, William Rufus.
Background
Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century. Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement ceding the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the later duchy of Normandy.[4] Normandy may have been used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century, which would have worsened relations between England and Normandy.[5] In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy, as his second wife in 1002.[6]
Danish raids on England continued, and Æthelred sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Æthelred and his family from England. Swein's death in 1014 allowed Æthelred to return home, but Swein's son Cnut contested Æthelred's return. Æthelred died unexpectedly in 1016, and Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma's two sons, Edward and Alfred, went into exile in Normandy while their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife.[7]
After Cnut's death in 1035, the English throne fell to Harold Harefoot, his son by his first wife, while Harthacnut, his son by Emma, became king in Denmark. England remained unstable. Alfred returned to England in 1036 to visit his mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king. One story implicates Earl Godwin of Wessex in Alfred's subsequent death, but others blame Harold. Emma went into exile in Flanders until Harthacnut became king following Harold's death in 1040, and his half-brother Edward followed Harthacnut to England; Edward was proclaimed king after Harthacnut's death in June 1042.[8][c]
Early life
Château de Falaise in Falaise, Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.
William was born in 1027 or 1028 at Falaise, Duchy of Normandy, most likely towards the end of 1028.[1][9][d] He was the only son of Robert I, son of Richard II.[e] His mother, Herleva, was a daughter of Fulbert of Falaise, who may have been a tanner or embalmer.[10] Herleva was possibly a member of the ducal household, but did not marry Robert.[2] She later married Herluin de Conteville, with whom she had two sons – Odo of Bayeux and Count Robert of Mortain – and a daughter whose name is unknown.[f] One of Herleva's brothers, Walter, became a supporter and protector of William during his minority.[10][g] Robert I also had a daughter, Adelaide, by another mistress.[13]
Robert I succeeded his elder brother Richard III as duke on 6 August 1027.[1] The brothers had been at odds over the succession, and Richard's death was sudden. Robert was accused by some writers of killing Richard, a plausible but now unprovable charge.[14] Conditions in Normandy were unsettled, as noble families despoiled the Church and Alan III of Brittany waged war against the duchy, possibly in an attempt to take control. By 1031 Robert had gathered considerable support from noblemen many of whom would become prominent during William's life. They included the duke's uncle Robert, the archbishop of Rouen, who had originally opposed the duke; Osbern, a nephew of Gunnor the wife of Richard I; and Gilbert of Brionne, a grandson of Richard I.[15] After his accession, Robert continued Norman support for the English princes Edward and Alfred, who were still in exile in northern France.[2]
Robert may have been briefly betrothed to a daughter of King Cnut, but no marriage took place. It is unclear whether William would have been supplanted in the ducal succession if Robert had had a legitimate son. Earlier dukes had been illegitimate, and William's association with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert's most likely heir.[2] In 1034 the duke decided to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Although some of his supporters tried to dissuade him, he convened a council in January 1035 and had the assembled Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir[2][16] before leaving for Jerusalem. He died in early July at Nicea, on his way back to Normandy.[16]
Duke of Normandy
Challenges
Diagram showing William's family relationships. Names with "---" under them were opponents of William, and names with "+++" were supporters of William. Some relatives switched sides over time, and are marked with both symbols.
William faced several challenges on becoming duke, including his illegitimate birth and his youth: he was either seven or eight years old.[17][18][h] He enjoyed the support of his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as well as King Henry I of France, enabling him to succeed to his father's duchy.[21] The support given to the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England in 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue his father's policies,[2] but Archbishop Robert's death in March 1037 removed one of William's main supporters, and Normandy quickly descended into chaos.[21]
The anarchy in the duchy lasted until 1047,[22] and control of the young duke was one of the priorities of those contending for power. At first, Alan of Brittany had custody of the duke, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Gilbert of Brionne took charge of William. Gilbert was killed within months, and another guardian, Turchetil, was also killed around the time of Gilbert's death.[23] Yet another guardian, Osbern, was slain in the early 1040s in William's chamber while the duke slept. It was said that Walter, William's maternal uncle, was occasionally forced to hide the young duke in the houses of peasants,[24] although this story may be an embellishment by Orderic Vitalis. The historian Eleanor Searle speculates that William was raised with the three cousins who later became important in his career – William fitzOsbern, Roger de Beaumont, and Roger of Montgomery.[25] Although many of the Norman nobles engaged in their own private wars and feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive of William.[26]
Column at the site of the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047
King Henry continued to support the young duke,[27] but in late 1046 opponents of William came together in a rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by Guy of Burgundy with support from Nigel, Viscount of the Cotentin, and Ranulf, Viscount of the Bessin. According to stories that may have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but he escaped under cover of darkness, seeking refuge with King Henry.[28] In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were victorious at the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes near Caen, although few details of the fighting are recorded.[29] William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William's efforts, but earlier accounts claim that King Henry's men and leadership also played an important part.[2] William assumed power in Normandy, and shortly after the battle promulgated the Truce of God throughout his duchy, in an effort to limit warfare and violence by restricting the days of the year on which fighting was permitted.[30] Although the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes marked a turning point in William's control of the duchy, it was not the end of his struggle to gain the upper hand over the nobility. The period from 1047 to 1054 saw almost continuous warfare, with lesser crises continuing until 1060.[31]
Consolidation of power
William's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at Brionne, which William besieged. After a long effort, the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.[32] To address the growing power of the Count of Anjou, Geoffrey Martel,[33] William joined with King Henry in a campaign against him, the last known cooperation between the two. They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress but accomplished little else.[34] Geoffrey attempted to expand his authority into the county of Maine, especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051. Central to the control of Maine were the holdings of the Bellême family, who held Bellême on the border of Maine and Normandy, as well as the fortresses at Alençon and Domfront. Bellême's overlord was the king of France, but Domfront was under the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel and Duke William was Alençon's overlord. The Bellême family, whose lands were quite strategically placed between their three different overlords, were able to play each of them against the other and secure virtual independence for themselves.[33]
Image from the Bayeux Tapestry showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.
On the death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a move contested by William and King Henry; eventually, they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county, and in the process, William secured the Bellême family strongholds at Alençon and Domfront for himself. He was thus able to assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to act consistently with Norman interests.[35] However, in 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William as some Norman nobles began to contest William's increasing power. Henry's about-face was probably motivated by a desire to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by William's growing mastery of his duchy.[36] William was engaged in military actions against his own nobles throughout 1053,[37] as well as with the new Archbishop of Rouen, Mauger.[38]
In February 1054 the king and the Norman rebels launched a double invasion of the duchy. Henry led the main thrust through the county of Évreux, while the other wing, under the king's half-brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.[39] William met the invasion by dividing his forces into two. The first, which he led, faced Henry. The second, which included some who became William's firm supporters, such as Robert, Count of Eu, Walter Giffard, Roger of Mortemer, and William de Warenne, faced the other invading force. This second force defeated the invaders at the Battle of Mortemer. In addition to ending both invasions, the battle allowed the duke's ecclesiastical supporters to depose Archbishop Mauger. Mortemer thus marked another turning point in William's growing control of the duchy,[40] although his conflict with the French king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060.[41] Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy in 1057 but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville. This was the last invasion of Normandy during William's lifetime. In 1058, William invaded the County of Dreux and took Tillières-sur-Avre and Thimert. Henry attempted to dislodge William, but the siege of Thimert dragged on for two years until Henry's death. The deaths of Count Geoffrey and the king in 1060 cemented the shift in the balance of power towards William.[42]
The signatures of William I and Matilda are the first two large crosses on the Accord of Winchester from 1072.
One factor in William's favour was his marriage to Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. The union was arranged in 1049, but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council of Rheims in October 1049.[i] The marriage nevertheless went ahead in the early 1050s,[44][j] possibly unsanctioned by the pope. According to a late source not generally considered to be reliable, papal sanction was not secured until 1059, but as papal-Norman relations in the 1050s were generally good, and Norman clergy were able to visit Rome in 1050 without incident, it was probably secured earlier.[46] Papal sanction of the marriage appears to have required the founding of two monasteries in Caen – one by William and one by Matilda.[47][k] The marriage was important in bolstering William's status, as Flanders was one of the more powerful French territories, with ties to the French royal house and to the German emperors.[46] Contemporary writers considered the marriage, which produced four sons and five or six daughters, to be a success.[49]
Appearance and character
No authentic portrait of William has been found; the contemporary depictions of him on the Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are conventional representations designed to assert his authority.[50] There are some written descriptions of a burly and robust appearance, with a guttural voice. He enjoyed excellent health until old age, although he became quite fat in later life.[51] He was strong enough to draw bows that others were unable to pull and had great stamina.[50] Geoffrey Martel described him as without equal as a fighter and horseman.[52] Examination of William's femur, the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) tall.[50]
There are records of two tutors for William during the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of his literary education is unclear. He was not known as a patron of authors, and there is little evidence that he sponsored scholarships or intellectual activities.[2] Orderic Vitalis records that William tried to learn to read Old English late in life, but he was unable to devote sufficient time to the effort and quickly gave up.[53] William's main hobby appears to have been hunting. His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite affectionate, and there are no signs that he was unfaithful to her – unusual in a medieval monarch. Medieval writers criticised William for his greed and cruelty, but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries.[2]
Norman administration
Norman government under William was similar to the government that had existed under earlier dukes. It was a fairly simple administrative system, built around the ducal household,[54] a group of officers including stewards, butlers, and marshals.[55] The duke travelled constantly around the duchy, confirming charters and collecting revenues.[56] Most of the income came from the ducal lands, as well as from tolls and a few taxes. This income was collected by the chamber, one of the household departments.[55]
William cultivated close relations with the church in his duchy. He took part in church councils and made several appointments to the Norman episcopate, including the appointment of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen.[57] Another important appointment was that of William's half-brother, Odo, as Bishop of Bayeux in 1049 or 1050.[2] He also relied on the clergy for advice, including Lanfranc, a non-Norman who rose to become one of William's prominent ecclesiastical advisors from the late 1040s through the 1060s. William gave generously to the church;[57] from 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy founded at least twenty new monastic houses, including William's two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious life in the duchy.[58]
English and continental concerns
In 1051 the childless King Edward of England appears to have chosen William as his successor.[59] William was the grandson of Edward's maternal uncle, Richard II of Normandy.[59]
Family relationships of the claimants to the English throne in 1066, and others involved in the struggle. Kings of England are shown in bold.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in the "D" version, states that William visited England in the later part of 1051, perhaps to secure confirmation of the succession,[60] or perhaps to secure aid for his troubles in Normandy.[61] The trip is unlikely given William's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time. Whatever Edward's wishes, it was likely that any claim by William would be opposed by Godwin, Earl of Wessex, a member of the most powerful family in England.[60] Edward had married Edith, Godwin's daughter, in 1043, and Godwin appears to have been one of the main supporters of Edward's claim to the throne.[62] By 1050, however, relations between the king and the earl had soured, culminating in a crisis in 1051 that led to the exile of Godwin and his family from England. During this exile, Edward offered the throne to William.[63] Godwin returned from exile in 1052 with armed forces, and a settlement was reached between the king and the earl, restoring the earl and his family to their lands and replacing Robert of Jumièges, a Norman whom Edward had named Archbishop of Canterbury, with Stigand, the Bishop of Winchester.[64] No English source mentions a supposed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the succession, and the two Norman sources that mention it, William of Jumièges and William of Poitiers, are not precise in their chronology of when this visit took place.[61]
Count Herbert II of Maine died in 1062, and William, who had betrothed his eldest son Robert to Herbert's sister Margaret, claimed the county through his son. Local nobles resisted the claim, but William invaded and by 1064 had secured control of the area.[65] William appointed a Norman to the bishopric of Le Mans in 1065. He also allowed his son Robert Curthose to do homage to the new Count of Anjou, Geoffrey the Bearded.[66] William's western border was thus secured, but his border with Brittany remained insecure. In 1064 William invaded Brittany in a campaign that remains obscure in its details. Its effect, though, was to destabilise Brittany, forcing the duke, Conan II, to focus on internal problems rather than on expansion. Conan's death in 1066 further secured William's borders in Normandy. William also benefited from his campaign in Brittany by securing the support of some Breton nobles who went on to support the invasion of England in 1066.[67]
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry whose text indicates William supplying weapons to Harold during Harold's trip to the continent in 1064
Earl Godwin died in 1053. Harold succeeded to his father's earldom, and another son, Tostig, became Earl of Northumbria. Other sons were granted earldoms later: Gyrth as Earl of East Anglia in 1057 and Leofwine as Earl of Kent sometime between 1055 and 1057.[68] Some sources claim that Harold took part in William's Breton campaign of 1064 and swore to uphold William's claim to the English throne,[66] but no English source reports this trip, and it is unclear if it actually occurred. It may have been Norman propaganda designed to discredit Harold, who had emerged as the main contender to succeed King Edward.[69] Meanwhile, another contender for the throne had emerged – Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Æthelred II, returned to England in 1057. Although he died shortly after his return, he brought with him his family, which included two daughters, Margaret and Christina, and a son, Edgar the Ætheling.[70][l]
In 1065 Northumbria revolted against Tostig, and the rebels chose Morcar, the younger brother of Edwin, Earl of Mercia, as earl. Harold, perhaps to secure the support of Edwin and Morcar in his bid for the throne, supported the rebels and persuaded King Edward to replace Tostig with Morcar. Tostig went into exile in Flanders with his wife Judith, who was the daughter of Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders. Edward was ailing, and he died on 5 January 1066. It is unclear what exactly happened at Edward's deathbed. One story, deriving from the Vita Ædwardi, a biography of Edward, claims that he was attended by his wife Edith, Harold, Archbishop Stigand, and Robert FitzWimarc, and that the king named Harold as his successor. The Norman sources do not dispute that Harold was named as the next king, but they declare that Harold's oath and Edward's earlier promise of the throne could not be changed on Edward's deathbed. Later English sources stated that Harold had been elected as king by the clergy and magnates of England.[72]
Invasion of England
Main article: Norman conquest of England
Harold's preparations
Locations of some of the events in 1066
Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 in Edward's new Norman-style Westminster Abbey, although some controversy surrounds who performed the ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York, performed the ceremony, while Norman sources state that the coronation was performed by Stigand, who was considered a non-canonical archbishop by the papacy.[73] Harold's claim to the throne was not entirely secure, as there were other claimants, perhaps including his exiled brother Tostig.[74][m] King Harald Hardrada of Norway also had a claim to the throne as the uncle and heir of King Magnus I, who had made a pact with Harthacnut around 1040 that if either Magnus or Harthacnut died without heirs, the other would succeed.[78] The last claimant was William of Normandy, against whose anticipated invasion King Harold Godwinson made most of his preparations.[74]
Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066, landing at the Isle of Wight using a fleet supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig appears to have received little local support, and further raids into Lincolnshire and near the Humber met with no more success, so he retreated to Scotland. According to the Norman writer William of Jumièges, William had meanwhile sent an embassy to King Harold Godwinson to remind Harold of his oath to support William's claim, although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear. Harold assembled an army and a fleet to repel William's anticipated invasion force, deploying troops and ships along the English Channel for most of the summer.[74]
William's preparations
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Normans provisioning armour and wine for the invasion of England
William of Poitiers describes a council called by Duke William, in which the writer gives an account of a debate between William's nobles and supporters over whether to risk an invasion of England. Although some sort of formal assembly probably was held, it is unlikely that any debate took place: the duke had by then established control over his nobles, and most of those assembled would have been anxious to secure their share of the rewards from the conquest of England.[79] William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained the consent of Pope Alexander II for the invasion, along with a papal banner. The chronicler also claimed that the duke secured the support of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and King Sweyn II of Denmark. Henry was still a minor, however, and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold, who could then help Sweyn against the Norwegian king, so these claims should be treated with caution. Although Alexander gave papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded, no other source claims papal support prior to the invasion.[n][80] Events after the invasion, which included the penance William performed and statements by later popes, lend circumstantial support to the claim of papal approval. To deal with Norman affairs, William put the government of Normandy into the hands of his wife for the duration of the invasion.[2]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records fear 'That William the Bastard would come hither'
Throughout the summer, William assembled an army and an invasion fleet in Normandy. Although William of Jumièges's claim that the ducal fleet numbered 3,000 ships is clearly an exaggeration, it was probably large and mostly built from scratch. Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumièges disagree about where the fleet was built – Poitiers states it was constructed at the mouth of the River Dives, while Jumièges states it was built at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme – both agree that it eventually sailed from Valery-sur-Somme. The fleet carried an invasion force that included, in addition to troops from William's territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies, and volunteers from Brittany, northeastern France, and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of Europe. Although the army and fleet were ready by early August, adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's delay, including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold's forces were deployed along the coast. William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing.[80] Harold kept his forces on alert throughout the summer, but with the arrival of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September.[81]
Tostig and Hardrada's invasion
Modern site of the Battle of Stamford Bridge in the East Riding of Yorkshire
Tostig Godwinson and Harald Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066 and defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford near York. King Harold received word of their invasion and marched north, defeating the invaders and killing Tostig and Hardrada on 25 September at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.[78] The Norman fleet finally set sail two days later, landing in England at Pevensey Bay on 28 September. William then moved to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a castle as a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the interior and waited for Harold's return from the north, refusing to venture far from the sea, his line of communication with Normandy.[81]
Battle of Hastings
Main article: Battle of Hastings
After defeating Harald Hardrada and Tostig, Harold left much of his army in the north, including Morcar and Edwin, and marched the rest south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion.[81] He probably learned of William's landing while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about a week before marching to Hastings, so it is likely that he spent about a week on his march south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day,[82] for the distance of approximately 200 miles (320 kilometres).[83] Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans, William's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke. The exact events preceding the battle are obscure, with contradictory accounts in the sources, but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy.[84] Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from William's castle at Hastings.[85]
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting the Battle of Hastings
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October and lasted all day. While a broad outline is known, the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts.[86] Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few, if any, archers.[87] The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge and were at first so effective that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. Some of William's Breton troops panicked and fled, and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons until they themselves were attacked and destroyed by Norman cavalry. During the Bretons' flight, rumours swept through the Norman forces that the duke had been killed, but William succeeded in rallying his troops. Two further Norman retreats were feigned, to draw the English into pursuit and expose them to repeated attacks by the Norman cavalry.[88] The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon, but it appears that the decisive event was Harold's death, about which differing stories are told. William of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold's death by an arrow to the eye, but that may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th-century stories in which Harold was slain by an arrow wound to the head.[89]
Harold's body was identified the day after the battle, either through his armour or marks on his body. The English dead, including some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left on the battlefield. Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, Harold's mother, offered the duke the weight of her son's body in gold for it, but her offer was refused.[o] William ordered the body thrown into the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Waltham Abbey, which Harold founded, later claimed that his body had been secretly buried there.[93]
March on London
William may have hoped the English would surrender following his victory, but they did not. Instead, some of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Ætheling as king, though their support for Edgar was only lukewarm. After waiting a short while, William secured Dover, parts of Kent, and Canterbury, while also sending a force to capture Winchester, where the royal treasury was.[94] These captures secured William's rear areas and his line of retreat to Normandy, if that was needed.[2] William then marched to Southwark, across the Thames from London, which he reached in late November. Next, he led his forces around the south and west of London, burning along the way. He finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December. Stigand submitted to William there, and when the duke moved on to Berkhamsted soon afterwards, Edgar the Ætheling, Morcar, Edwin, and Ealdred also submitted. William then sent forces into London to construct a castle; he was crowned at Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.[94]
Consolidation
Further information: Government in Norman and Angevin England
First actions
William remained in England after his coronation and tried to reconcile the native magnates. The remaining earls – Edwin (of Mercia), Morcar (of Northumbria), and Waltheof (of Northampton) – were confirmed in their lands and titles.[95] Waltheof was married to William's niece Judith, daughter of his half-sister Adelaide,[96] and a marriage between Edwin and one of William's daughters was proposed. Edgar the Ætheling also appears to have been given lands. Ecclesiastical offices continued to be held by the same bishops as before the invasion, including the uncanonical Stigand.[95] But the families of Harold and his brothers lost their lands, as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings.[97] By March, William was secure enough to return to Normandy, but he took with him Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar, and Waltheof. He left his half-brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along with another influential supporter, William fitzOsbern, the son of his former guardian.[95] Both men were also named to earldoms – fitzOsbern to Hereford (or Wessex) and Odo to Kent.[2] Although he put two Normans in overall charge, he retained many of the native English sheriffs.[97] Once in Normandy the new English king went to Rouen and the Abbey of Fecamp,[95] and then attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries.[2]
While William was in Normandy, a former ally, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne, invaded at Dover but was repulsed. English resistance had also begun, with Eadric the Wild attacking Hereford and revolts at Exeter, where Harold's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance.[98] FitzOsbern and Odo found it difficult to control the native population and undertook a programme of castle-building to maintain their hold on the kingdom.[2] William returned to England in December 1067 and marched on Exeter, which he besieged. The town held out for 18 days. After it fell to William he built a castle to secure his control. Harold's sons were meanwhile raiding the southwest of England from a base in Ireland. Their forces landed near Bristol but were defeated by Eadnoth. By Easter, William was at Winchester, where he was soon joined by his wife Matilda, who was crowned in May 1068.[98]
English resistance
Main article: Harrying of the North
The remains of Baile Hill, the second motte-and-bailey castle built by William in York
In 1068 Edwin and Morcar rose in revolt, supported by Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria. Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin's reason for revolting was that the proposed marriage between himself and one of William's daughters had not taken place, but another reason probably included the increasing power of fitzOsbern in Herefordshire, which affected Edwin's power within his own earldom. The king marched through Edwin's lands and built Warwick Castle. Edwin and Morcar submitted, but William continued on to York, building York and Nottingham Castles before returning south. On his southbound journey, he began constructing Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge Castles. William placed supporters in charge of these new fortifications – among them William Peverel at Nottingham and Henry de Beaumont at Warwick – then returned to Normandy late in 1068.[98]
Early in 1069, Edgar the Ætheling revolted and attacked York. Although William returned to York and built another castle, Edgar remained free, and in the autumn he joined up with King Sweyn.[p] The Danish king had brought a large fleet to England and attacked not only York but Exeter and Shrewsbury. York was captured by the combined forces of Edgar and Sweyn. Edgar was proclaimed king by his supporters. William responded swiftly, ignoring a continental revolt in Maine, and symbolically wore his crown in the ruins of York on Christmas Day 1069. He then bought off the Danes. He marched to the River Tees, ravaging the countryside as he went. Edgar, having lost much of his support, fled to Scotland,[99] where King Malcolm III was married to Edgar's sister Margaret.[100] Waltheof, who had joined the revolt, submitted, along with Gospatric, and both were allowed to retain their lands. William marched over the Pennines during the winter and defeated the remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before building Chester and Stafford Castles. This campaign, which included the burning and destruction of part of the countryside that the royal forces marched through, is usually known as the "Harrying of the North"; it was over by April 1070, when William wore his crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester.[99]
Church affairs
While at Winchester in 1070, William met with three papal legates – John Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion – who had been sent by the pope. The legates ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court.[101] The historian David Bates sees this coronation as the ceremonial papal "seal of approval" for William's conquest.[2] The legates and the king then held a series of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church. Stigand and his brother, Æthelmær, the Bishop of Elmham, were deposed from their bishoprics. Some of the native abbots were also deposed, both at the council held near Easter and at a further one near Whitsun. The Whitsun council saw the appointment of Lanfranc as the new Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas of Bayeux as the new Archbishop of York, to replace Ealdred, who had died in September 1069.[101] William's half-brother Odo perhaps expected to be appointed to Canterbury, but William probably did not wish to give that much power to a family member.[q] Another reason for the appointment may have been pressure from the papacy to appoint Lanfranc.[102] Norman clergy were appointed to replace the deposed bishops and abbots, and at the end of the process, only native English bishops remained in office, along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor.[101] In 1070 William also founded Battle Abbey, a new monastery at the site of the Battle of Hastings, partly as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly as a memorial to the dead.[2] At an ecclesiastical council held in Lillebonne in 1080, he was confirmed in his ultimate authority over the Norman church.[103]
Troubles in England and on the Continent
Danish raids and rebellion
Although Sweyn had promised to leave England, he returned in early 1070, raiding along the Humber and East Anglia toward the Isle of Ely, where he joined up with Hereward the Wake, a local thegn. Hereward's forces captured and looted Peterborough Abbey. William was able to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in 1070,[104] allowing him to return to the continent to deal with troubles in Maine, where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069. Another concern was the death of Count Baldwin VI of Flanders in July 1070, which led to a succession crisis as his widow, Richilde, was ruling for their two young sons, Arnulf and Baldwin. Her rule was contested by Robert, Baldwin's brother. Richilde proposed marriage to William fitzOsbern, who was in Normandy, and fitzOsbern accepted. But after he was killed in February 1071 at the Battle of Cassel, Robert became count. He was opposed to King William's power on the continent, thus the Battle of Cassel upset the balance of power in northern France and cost William an important supporter.[105]
In 1071 William defeated the last rebellion of the north. Earl Edwin was betrayed by his own men and killed, while William built a causeway to subdue the Isle of Ely, where Hereward the Wake and Morcar were hiding. Hereward escaped, but Morcar was captured, deprived of his earldom, and imprisoned. In 1072 William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy, and Malcolm probably gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace. Perhaps another stipulation of the treaty was the expulsion of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm's court.[106] William then turned his attention to the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal with the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. With a swift campaign, William seized Le Mans from Fulk's forces, completing the campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power more secure in northern France, but the new count of Flanders accepted Edgar the Ætheling into his court. Robert also married his half-sister Bertha to King Philip I of France, who was opposed to Norman power.[107]
William returned to England to release his army from service in 1073 but quickly returned to Normandy, where he spent all of 1074.[108] He left England in the hands of his supporters, including Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne,[109] as well as Lanfranc.[110] William's ability to leave England for an entire year was a sign that he felt that his control of the kingdom was secure.[109] While William was in Normandy, Edgar the Ætheling returned to Scotland from Flanders. The French king, seeking a focus for those opposed to William's power, proposed that Edgar be given the castle of Montreuil-sur-Mer on the Channel, which would have given Edgar a strategic advantage against William.[111] However, Edgar was forced to submit to William shortly thereafter, and he returned to William's court.[108][r] Philip, although thwarted in this attempt, turned his attentions to Brittany, leading to a revolt in 1075.[111]
Revolt of the Earls
Main article: Revolt of the Earls
Norwich Castle. The keep dates to after the Revolt of the Earls, but the castle mound is earlier.[112]
In 1075, during William's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Norfolk, and Roger de Breteuil, the Earl of Hereford, conspired to overthrow William in the "Revolt of the Earls".[110] Ralph was at least part Breton and had spent most of his life prior to 1066 in Brittany, where he still had lands.[113] Roger was a Norman, son of William fitzOsbern, but had inherited less authority than his father held.[114] Ralph's authority seems also to have been less than his predecessors in the earldom, and this was likely the cause of his involvement in the revolt.[113]
The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear. It was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger, held at Exning in Suffolk. Waltheof, the earl of Northumbria, although one of William's favourites, was involved, and some Breton lords were ready to rebel in support of Ralph and Roger. Ralph also requested Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt. Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan, the Bishop of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Abbot of Evesham. Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey de Montbray, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Ralph eventually left Norwich in the control of his wife and left England, ending up in Brittany. Norwich was besieged and surrendered, with the garrison allowed to go to Brittany. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships, but Norwich had already surrendered. The Danes raided along the coast before returning home.[110] William returned to England later in 1075 to deal with the Danish threat, leaving his wife Matilda in charge of Normandy. He celebrated Christmas at Winchester and dealt with the aftermath of the rebellion.[115] Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison, where Waltheof was executed in May 1076. Before this, William had returned to the continent, where Ralph had continued the rebellion from Brittany.[110]
Troubles at home and abroad
Earl Ralph had secured control of the castle at Dol, and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and laid siege to the castle. King Philip of France later relieved the siege and defeated William at the Battle of Dol in 1076, forcing him to retreat to Normandy. Although this was William's first defeat in battle, it did little to change things. An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077, with Count Fulk le Rechin wounded in the unsuccessful attack. More serious was the retirement of Simon de Crépy, the Count of Amiens, to a monastery. Before he became a monk, Simon handed his county of the Vexin over to King Philip. The Vexin was a buffer state between Normandy and the lands of the French king, and Simon had been a supporter of William.[s] William was able to make peace with Philip in 1077 and secured a truce with Count Fulk in late 1077 or early 1078.[116]
In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began between William and his eldest son, Robert. Although Orderic Vitalis describes it as starting with a quarrel between Robert and his younger brothers William and Henry, including a story that the quarrel was started when William and Henry threw water at Robert, it is much more likely that Robert was feeling powerless. Orderic relates that he had previously demanded control of Maine and Normandy and had been rebuffed. The trouble in 1077 or 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of young men, many of them the sons of William's supporters. Included among them were Robert of Belleme, William de Breteuil, and Roger, the son of Richard fitzGilbert. This band went to the castle at Remalard, where they proceeded to raid into Normandy. The raiders were supported by many of William's continental enemies.[117] William immediately attacked the rebels and drove them from Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they were joined by new supporters. William then laid siege to Gerberoi in January 1079. After three weeks, the besieged forces sallied from the castle and took the besiegers by surprise. William was unhorsed by Robert and was only saved from death by an Englishman, Toki son of Wigod, who was himself killed.[118] William's forces were forced to lift the siege, and the king returned to Rouen. By 12 April 1080, William and Robert had reached an accommodation, with William once more affirming that Robert would receive Normandy when he died.[119]
Map showing William's lands in 1087 (light pink)
Word of William's defeat at Gerberoi stirred up difficulties in northern England. In August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of the River Tweed, devastating the land between the River Tees and the Tweed in a raid that lasted almost a month. The lack of Norman response appears to have caused the Northumbrians to grow restive, and in the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher, the Bishop of Durham and Earl of Northumbria. Walcher was killed on 14 May 1080, and the king dispatched his half-brother Odo to deal with the rebellion.[120] William departed Normandy in July 1080,[121] and in the autumn his son Robert was sent on a campaign against the Scots. Robert raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms, building the 'new castle' at Newcastle upon Tyne while returning to England.[120] The king was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun in 1081, ceremonially wearing his crown on both occasions. A papal embassy arrived in England during this period, asking that William do fealty for England to the papacy, a request that he rejected.[121] William also visited Wales in 1081, although the English and the Welsh sources differ on the purpose of the visit. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that it was a military campaign, but Welsh sources record it as a pilgrimage to St Davids in honour of Saint David. William's biographer David Bates argues that the former explanation is more likely: the balance of power had recently shifted in Wales and William would have wished to take advantage of this to extend Norman power. By the end of 1081, William was back on the continent, dealing with disturbances in Maine. Although he led an expedition into Maine, the result was instead a negotiated settlement arranged by a papal legate.[122]
Last years
Sources for William's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre. According to the historian David Bates, this probably means that little of note happened, and that because William was on the continent, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record.[123] In 1082, William ordered the arrest of his half-brother Odo. The exact reasons are unclear, as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope and that Odo had attempted to persuade some of William's vassals to join Odo in an invasion of southern Italy. This would have been considered tampering with the king's authority over his vassals, which William would not have tolerated. Although Odo remained in confinement for the rest of William's reign, his lands were not confiscated. In 1083, William's son Robert rebelled once more with support from the French king. A further blow was the death of Queen Matilda on 2 November 1083. William was always described as close to his wife, and her death would have added to his problems.[124]
Maine continued to be difficult, with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine, probably in 1084. Hubert was besieged in his castle at Sainte-Suzanne by William's forces for at least two years, but he eventually made peace with the king and was restored to favour. William's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear – he was in Normandy at Easter 1084 but may have been in England before then to collect the danegeld assessed that year for the defence of England against an invasion by King Cnut IV of Denmark. Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and into 1086, the invasion threat was ended by Cnut's death in July 1086.[125]
William as king
Changes in England
See also: English castles and Royal forest § Royal forests in England
The White Tower in London, begun by William[126]
As part of his efforts to secure England, William ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes built – among them the central keep of the Tower of London, the White Tower. These fortifications allowed Normans to retreat into safety when threatened with rebellion and allowed garrisons to be protected while they occupied the countryside. The early castles were simple earth and timber constructions, later replaced with stone structures.[127]
At first, most of the newly settled Normans kept household knights and did not settle their retainers with fiefs of their own, but gradually these household knights came to be granted lands of their own, a process known as subinfeudation. William also required his newly created magnates to contribute fixed quotas of knights towards not only military campaigns but also castle garrisons. This method of organising the military forces was a departure from the pre-Conquest English practice of basing military service on territorial units such as the hide.[128]
By William's death, after weathering a series of rebellions, most of the native Anglo-Saxon aristocracy had been replaced by Norman and other continental magnates. Not all of the Normans who accompanied William in the initial conquest acquired large amounts of land in England. Some appear to have been reluctant to take up lands in a kingdom that did not always appear pacified. Although some of the newly rich Normans in England came from William's close family or from the upper Norman nobility, others were from relatively humble backgrounds.[129] William granted some lands to his continental followers from the holdings of one or more specific Englishmen; at other times, he granted a compact grouping of lands previously held by many different Englishmen to one Norman follower, often to allow for the consolidation of lands around a strategically placed castle.[130]
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal New Forest to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting. Modern historians have concluded that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the New Forest comprises poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that it was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest.[131] William was known for his love of hunting, and he introduced the forest law into areas of the country, regulating who could hunt and what could be hunted.[132]
Administration
Main article: Norman conquest of England § Consequences
English coin of William the Conqueror
After 1066, William did not attempt to integrate his separate domains into one unified realm with one set of laws. His seal from after 1066, of which six impressions still survive, was made for him after he conquered England and stressed his role as king, while separately mentioning his role as duke.[t] When in Normandy, William acknowledged that he owed fealty to the French king, but in England no such acknowledgement was made – further evidence that the various parts of William's lands were considered separate. The administrative machinery of Normandy, England, and Maine continued to exist separate from the other lands, with each one retaining its own forms. For example, England continued the use of writs, which were not known on the continent. Also, the charters and documents produced for the government in Normandy differed in formulas from those produced in England.[133]
William took over an English government that was more complex than the Norman system. England was divided into shires or counties, which were further divided into either hundreds or wapentakes. Each shire was administered by a royal official called a sheriff, who roughly had the same status as a Norman viscount. A sheriff was responsible for royal justice and collecting royal revenue.[55] To oversee his expanded domain, William was forced to travel even more than he had as duke. He crossed back and forth between the continent and England at least 19 times between 1067 and his death. William spent most of his time in England between the Battle of Hastings and 1072; after that, he spent the majority of his time in Normandy.[134][u] Government was still centred on William's household; when he was in one part of his realms, decisions would be made for other parts of his domains and transmitted through a communication system that made use of letters and other documents. William also appointed deputies who could make decisions while he was absent, especially if the absence was expected to be lengthy. Usually, this was a member of William's close family – frequently his half-brother Odo or his wife Matilda. Sometimes deputies were appointed to deal with specific issues.[135]
William continued the collection of danegeld, a land tax. This was an advantage for William and the only universal tax collected by western European rulers during this period. It was an annual tax based on the value of landholdings and could be collected at differing rates. Most years saw the rate of two shillings per hide, but in crises, it could be increased to as much as six shillings per hide.[136] Coinage across his domains continued to be minted in different cycles and styles. English coins were generally of high silver content, with high artistic standards, and were required to be re-minted every three years. Norman coins had a much lower silver content, were often of poor artistic quality, and were rarely re-minted. In England, no other coinage was allowed, while on the continent other coinage was considered legal tender. Nor is there evidence that many English pennies were circulating in Normandy, which shows little attempt to integrate the monetary systems of England and Normandy.[133]
Besides taxation, William's large landholdings throughout England strengthened his rule. As King Edward's heir, he controlled all of the former royal lands. He also retained control of much of the lands of Harold and his family, which made the king the largest secular landowner in England by a wide margin.[v]
Domesday Book
Main article: Domesday Book
A page from the Domesday Book for Warwickshire
At Christmas 1085, William ordered the compilation of a survey of the landholdings held by himself and by his vassals throughout his kingdom, organised by counties. It resulted in a work now known as the Domesday Book. The listing for each county gives the holdings of each landholder, grouped by owners. The listings describe the holding, who owned the land before the Conquest, its value, its tax assessment, and usually the number of peasants, ploughs, and any other resources the holding had. Towns were listed separately. All the English counties south of the River Tees and River Ribble are included. The whole work seems to have been mostly completed by 1 August 1086, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that William received the results and that all the chief magnates swore the Salisbury Oath, a renewal of their oaths of allegiance.[138] William's motivation in ordering the survey is unclear, but it probably had several purposes, such as making a record of feudal obligations and justifying increased taxation.[2]
Death and aftermath
William left England towards the end of 1086. Following his arrival back on the continent he married his daughter Constance to Duke Alan of Brittany, in furtherance of his policy of seeking allies against the French kings. William's son Robert, still allied with the French king, appears to have been active in stirring up trouble, enough so that William led an expedition against the French Vexin in July 1087. While seizing Mantes, William either fell ill or was injured by the pommel of his saddle.[139] He was taken to the priory of Saint Gervase at Rouen, where he died on 9 September 1087.[2] Knowledge of the events preceding his death is confused because there are two different accounts. Orderic Vitalis preserves a lengthy account, complete with speeches made by many of the principals, but this is likely more of an account of how a king should die than of what actually happened. The other, the De obitu Willelmi, or On the Death of William, has been shown to be a copy of two 9th-century accounts with names changed.[139]
Tumba de Guillermo ante el altar mayor de la Abadía de los Hombres de Caen
Guillermo dejó Normandía a Roberto, y la custodia de Inglaterra fue dada al segundo hijo superviviente de Guillermo, también llamado Guillermo, en la suposición de que se convertiría en rey. El hijo menor, Enrique, recibió dinero. Después de confiar Inglaterra a su segundo hijo, el mayor de los Guillermo envió al joven Guillermo de vuelta a Inglaterra el 7 u 8 de septiembre, llevando una carta para Lanfranco en la que ordenaba al arzobispo que ayudara al nuevo rey. Otros legados incluían regalos a la Iglesia y dinero para ser distribuido a los pobres. Guillermo también ordenó que todos sus prisioneros fueran liberados, incluido su hermanastro Odo. [139]
El desorden siguió a la muerte de Guillermo; todos los que habían estado en su lecho de muerte abandonaron el cuerpo en Rouen y se apresuraron a ocuparse de sus propios asuntos. Finalmente, el clero de Rouen dispuso que el cuerpo fuera enviado a Caen, donde Guillermo había deseado ser enterrado en su fundación de la Abbaye-aux-Hommes. El funeral, al que asistieron los obispos y abades de Normandía, así como su hijo Enrique, fue perturbado por un ciudadano de Caen que alegó que su familia había sido despojada ilegalmente de las tierras en las que se construyó la iglesia. Después de consultas apresuradas, se demostró que la acusación era cierta y el hombre fue compensado. Una nueva indignidad ocurrió cuando el cadáver fue bajado a la tumba. El cadáver era demasiado grande para el espacio, y cuando los asistentes forzaron el cuerpo dentro de la tumba, estalló, esparciendo un olor repugnante por toda la iglesia. [140]
La tumba de William está marcada por una losa de mármol con una inscripción en latín que data de principios del siglo XIX. La tumba ha sido perturbada varias veces desde 1087, la primera vez en 1522 cuando la tumba fue abierta por orden del papado. El cuerpo intacto fue restaurado a la tumba en ese momento, pero en 1562, durante las Guerras de Religión francesas, la tumba fue reabierta y los huesos se dispersaron y se perdieron, con la excepción de un fémur. Esta reliquia solitaria fue enterrada de nuevo en 1642 con una nueva lápida, que fue reemplazada 100 años después por un monumento más elaborado. Esta tumba fue destruida de nuevo durante la Revolución Francesa, pero finalmente fue reemplazada por la actual piedra del libro mayor. [141] [w]
Legado
Estatua de Guillermo el Conquistador en Falaise, Francia
La consecuencia inmediata de la muerte de Guillermo fue una guerra entre sus hijos Roberto y Guillermo por el control de Inglaterra y Normandía. [2] Incluso después de la muerte del joven Guillermo en 1100 y la sucesión de su hermano menor Enrique como rey, Normandía e Inglaterra permanecieron en disputa entre los hermanos hasta la captura de Roberto por Enrique en la batalla de Tinchebray en 1106. Las dificultades sobre la sucesión condujeron a una pérdida de autoridad en Normandía, con la aristocracia recuperando gran parte del poder que habían perdido ante el anciano Guillermo. Sus hijos también perdieron gran parte de su control sobre Maine, que se rebeló en 1089 y logró permanecer en su mayor parte libre de la influencia normanda a partir de entonces. [143]
El impacto en Inglaterra de la conquista de Guillermo fue profundo; los cambios en la Iglesia, la aristocracia, la cultura y el idioma del país han persistido hasta los tiempos modernos. La Conquista acercó el reino a Francia y forjó lazos que perduraron a lo largo de la Edad Media. Otra consecuencia de la invasión de Guillermo fue la ruptura de los antiguos lazos estrechos entre Inglaterra y Escandinavia. El gobierno de Guillermo mezcló elementos de los sistemas inglés y normando en uno nuevo que sentó las bases del reino inglés medieval tardío. [144] Cuán abruptos y de gran alcance fueron los cambios sigue siendo un tema de debate entre los historiadores, con algunos, como Richard Southern, afirmando que la Conquista fue el cambio más radical en la historia europea entre la caída de Roma y el siglo XX. Otros, como H. G. Richardson y G. O. Sayles, ven los cambios como mucho menos radicales. [145] La historiadora Eleanor Searle describe la invasión de Guillermo como "un plan que ningún gobernante, excepto un escandinavo, habría considerado". [146]
El reinado de Guillermo ha causado controversia histórica desde antes de su muerte. Guillermo de Poitiers escribió elogiosamente sobre el reinado de Guillermo y sus beneficios, pero el obituario de Guillermo en la Crónica Anglosajona condena a Guillermo en términos duros. [145] Durante el reinado de la reina Isabel I, el arzobispo Matthew Parker vio la Conquista como una forma de corromper una Iglesia inglesa más pura, que Parker intentó restaurar. Durante los siglos XVII y XVIII, algunos historiadores y abogados vieron el reinado de Guillermo como la imposición de un "yugo normando" a los anglosajones nativos, un argumento que continuó durante el siglo XIX con posteriores elaboraciones a lo largo de líneas nacionalistas. Estas controversias han llevado a que Guillermo sea visto por algunos historiadores como uno de los creadores de la grandeza de Inglaterra o como el causante de una de las mayores derrotas de la historia inglesa. Otros lo han visto como un enemigo de la constitución inglesa, o alternativamente como su creador. [147]
La familia y los hijos
William y su esposa Matilde tuvieron al menos nueve hijos. [49] El orden de nacimiento de los hijos es claro, pero ninguna fuente da el orden relativo de nacimiento de las hijas. [2]
Roberto nació entre 1051 y 1054, murió el 10 de febrero de 1134. [49] Duque de Normandía, casado con Sybilla, hija de Godofredo, conde de Conversano. [148]
Ricardo nació antes de 1056 y murió alrededor de 1075. [49]
Guillermo nació entre 1056 y 1060, murió el 2 de agosto de 1100. [49] Rey de Inglaterra, asesinado en New Forest. [149]
Enrique nació a finales de 1068 y murió el 1 de diciembre de 1135. [49] Rey de Inglaterra, se casó con Edith, hija de Malcolm III de Escocia. Su segunda esposa fue Adeliza de Lovaina. [150]
Adeliza (o Adelida,[151] Adelaida[150]) murió antes de 1113, supuestamente prometida a Harold Godwinson, probablemente una monja de Saint Léger en Préaux. [151]
Cecilia (o Cecilia) nació antes de 1066 y murió en 1127, abadesa de la Santísima Trinidad de Caen. [49]
Matilde[2] [151] nació alrededor de 1061 y murió quizás alrededor de 1086. [150] Mencionada en el Domesday Book de 1086 como hija de William. [49]
Constanza murió en 1090 y se casó con Alan IV, duque de Bretaña. [49]
Adela murió en 1137, se casó con Esteban, conde de Blois. [49]
(Posiblemente) Águeda, la prometida de Alfonso VI de León y Castilla. [x]
No hay evidencia de ningún hijo ilegítimo nacido de William. [155]
Notas
francés: Guillaume; Latín: Guillelmus; Viejo Normando: Williame; Inglés antiguo: Willelm
Fue descrito regularmente como bastardo (bastardo) en fuentes contemporáneas no normandas. [2]
Aunque el cronista Guillermo de Poitiers afirmó que la sucesión de Eduardo se debió a los esfuerzos del duque Guillermo, esto es muy poco probable, ya que Guillermo estaba en ese momento prácticamente impotente en su propio ducado. [2]
La fecha exacta del nacimiento de Guillermo es confusa por las declaraciones contradictorias de los cronistas normandos. Orderic Vitalis tiene a William en su lecho de muerte afirmando que tenía 64 años, lo que situaría su nacimiento alrededor de 1023. Pero en otro lugar, Orderico afirma que Guillermo tenía 8 años cuando su padre partió hacia Jerusalén en 1035, situando el año de nacimiento en 1027. Guillermo de Malmesbury da una edad de 7 años para Guillermo cuando su padre se fue, dando 1028. Otra fuente, De obitu Willelmi, afirma que Guillermo tenía 59 años cuando murió en 1087, teniendo en cuenta 1027 o 1028. [10]
Esto convirtió a Emma de Normandía en su tía abuela y a Eduardo el Confesor en su prima. [11] [12]
Esta hija se casó más tarde con Guillermo, señor de La Ferté-Macé. [10]
Walter tenía dos hijas. Una se convirtió en monja y la otra, Matilda, se casó con Ralph Tesson. [10]
La forma en que la ilegitimidad era vista por la iglesia y la sociedad laica estaba experimentando un cambio durante este período. La Iglesia, bajo la influencia de la reforma gregoriana, sostenía la opinión de que el pecado del sexo extramatrimonial manchaba cualquier descendencia que resultara, pero los nobles no habían abrazado totalmente el punto de vista de la Iglesia durante la vida de Guillermo. [19] En 1135, el nacimiento ilegítimo de Roberto de Gloucester, hijo del hijo de Guillermo, Enrique I de Inglaterra, fue suficiente para impedir la sucesión de Roberto como rey cuando Enrique murió sin herederos varones legítimos, a pesar de que contaba con cierto apoyo de la nobleza inglesa. [20]
Las razones de la prohibición no están claras. No hay registro de la razón por parte del Concilio, y la principal evidencia es de Orderic Vitalis. Insinuó oblicuamente que William y Matilde estaban demasiado relacionados, pero no dio detalles, por lo que el asunto sigue siendo oscuro. [43]
The exact date of the marriage is unknown, but it was probably in 1051 or 1052, and certainly before the end of 1053, as Matilda is named as William's wife in a charter dated in the later part of that year.[45]
The two monasteries are the Abbaye-aux-Hommes (or St Étienne) for men which was founded by William in about 1059, and the Abbaye aux Dames (or Sainte Trinité) for women which was founded by Matilda around four years later.[48]
Ætheling means "prince of the royal house" and usually denoted a son or brother of a ruling king.[71]
Edgar the Ætheling was another claimant,[75] but Edgar was young,[76] likely only 14 in 1066.[77]
The Bayeux Tapestry may depict a papal banner carried by William's forces, but this is not named as such in the tapestry.[80]
William of Malmesbury states that William did accept Gytha's offer, but William of Poitiers states that William refused the offer.[90] Modern biographers of Harold agree that William refused the offer.[91][92]
Medieval chroniclers frequently referred to 11th-century events only by the season, making more precise dating impossible.
The historian Frank Barlow points out that William had suffered from his uncle Mauger's ambitions while young and thus would not have countenanced creating another such situation.[102]
Edgar permaneció en la corte de Guillermo hasta 1086, cuando se trasladó al principado normando en el sur de Italia. [108]
Aunque Simón era partidario de Guillermo, el Vexin estaba en realidad bajo el señorío del rey Felipe, razón por la cual Felipe aseguró el control del condado cuando Simón se convirtió en monje. [116]
El sello muestra un caballero montado y es el primer ejemplo existente de un sello ecuestre. [133]
Entre 1066 y 1072, Guillermo pasó solo 15 meses en Normandía y el resto en Inglaterra. Después de regresar a Normandía en 1072, pasó alrededor de 130 meses en Normandía en comparación con unos 40 meses en Inglaterra. [134]
En el Domesday Book, las tierras del rey valían cuatro veces más que las tierras de su hermanastro Odo, el siguiente terrateniente más grande, y siete veces más que Roger de Montgomery, el tercer terrateniente más grande. [137]
Se supone que el hueso del fémur que se encuentra actualmente en la tumba es el que se volvió a enterrar en 1642, pero el historiador victoriano E. A. Freeman opinó que el hueso se había perdido en 1793. [142]
Guillermo de Poitiers relata que dos hermanos, reyes íberos, competían por la mano de una hija de Guillermo, lo que derivó en una disputa entre ellos. [152] Algunos historiadores los han identificado como Sancho II de Castilla y su hermano García II de Galicia, y a la novia como la esposa documentada de Sancho, Alberta, que lleva un nombre no íbero. [153] La vita anónima de Simón de Crépy, en cambio, hace que los competidores sean Alfonso VI de León y Roberto Guiscardo, mientras que Guillermo de Malmesbury y Orderico Vitalis muestran a una hija de Guillermo que estuvo prometida a Alfonso "rey de Galicia" pero que murió antes del matrimonio. En su Historia Ecclesiastica, Orderico la nombra específicamente como Agatha, "ex prometida de Harold". [152] [153] Esto entra en conflicto con las adiciones anteriores de Orderic a la Gesta Normannorum Ducum, donde en su lugar nombró a la prometida de Harold como la hija de William, Adelidis. [151] Relatos recientes de la compleja historia matrimonial de Alfonso VI han aceptado que estaba comprometido con una hija de Guillermo llamada Agatha,[152] [153] [154] mientras que Douglas descarta a Agatha como una referencia confusa a su hija conocida Adeliza. [49] Elisabeth van Houts es evasiva, estando abierta a la posibilidad de que Adeliza estuviera comprometida antes de convertirse en monja, pero también aceptando que Agatha puede haber sido una hija distinta de William.
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Guillaume 'le Conquérant' FitzRobert, Duc de Normandie, Roi d'Angleterre, in English: William the Conqueror, King of England
Parents
Robert 'le Diable', Duc de Normandie & his mistress Herlève de Falaise
Spouse
Matilde (Maud) de Flandre
Children
Robert Curthose (1054–1134), Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano.
Richard (c. 1055 – c. 1081), Duke of Bernay, killed by a stag in New Forest.
Adeliza (or Alice) (c. 1055 – c. 1065), reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England.
Cecilia (or Cecily) (c. 1056 – 1126), Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen.
William "Rufus" (c. 1056 – 1100), King of England.
Agatha (c. 1064 – 1079), betrothed to Alfonso VI of Castile.
Constance (c. 1066 – 1090), married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany; poisoned, possibly by her own servants.
Adela (c. 1067 – 1137), married Stephen, Count of Blois.
Henry "Beauclerc" (1068–1135), King of England, married Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III, King of the Scots. His second wife was Adeliza of Leuven.
(Matilda)
Despite rumours to the contrary (such as claims that William Peverel was a bastard of William)[21] there is no evidence that he had any illegitimate children.[22]
Links and Resources
http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/NORMANDY.htm#GuillaumeIIdied1087B http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/ENGLAND,%20Kings%201066-1603.htm#Wi...
Medieval Lands
GUILLAUME de Normandie, illegitimate son of ROBERT II “le Diable” Duke of Normandy & his mistress Herlève --- (Château de Falaise, Normandy [1027/28]-Rouen, Prioré de Saint-Gervais 9 Sep 1087, bur Caen, Abbé de Saint-Etienne).
His birth date is estimated from William of Malmesbury, according to whom Guillaume was born of a concubine and was seven years old when his father left for Jerusalem[237], and Orderic Vitalis, who states that he was eight years old at the time[238].
According to Orderic Vitalis, Alain III Duke of Brittany was appointed his guardian during his father's absence in 1035[239]. Deville suggests that Guillaume´s birthdate can be fixed more precisely to [mid-1027], taking into account that his father Robert occupied Falaise immediately after the death of his father Duke Richard II (23 Aug 1026), not wishing to accept the authority of his older brother Duke Richard III, but that Robert´s stay was short as the two brothers were reconciled soon after, it being reasonable to suppose that Robert´s relationship with Guillaume´s mother occurred soon after his arrival at Falaise[240].
He succeeded his father in 1035 as GUILLAUME II Duke of Normandy. After Duke Alan was poisoned, Gilbert Comte d'Eu was appointed guardian but was himself murdered[241]. Duke Guillaume helped Henri I King of France defeat Geoffroy II "Martel" Comte d'Anjou at Mouliherne in [1045/55][242]. Edward "the Confessor" King of England may have acknowledged Guillaume's right to succeed to the English throne on several occasions, maybe for the first time during a visit to England in 1051 which is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[243]. Comte de Maine 1063, after he conquered the county. In [1064/65], Duke Guillaume interceded with Guy de Ponthieu Comte d'Abbeville to secure the release of Harold Godwinsson, in return for Harold's acknowledgement of Guillaume as successor to the English throne according to the portrayal of the event in the Bayeux tapestry. Harold Godwinsson's visit to Normandy, and swearing allegiance to Duke William, is recorded by William of Jumièges[244]. According to Eadmer of Canterbury, the reason for Harold's visit was to negotiate the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Haakon, both of whom had been hostages in Normandy since 1051.
On his deathbed King Edward "the Confessor" bequeathed the kingdom of England to Harold Godwinsson. Duke Guillaume branded Harold a perjurer and appealed to Pope Alexander II for support. After receiving a papal banner in response to this request, William gathered a sizable army during summer 1066 ready for invasion. After some delay due to unfavourable weather conditions, the army set sail for England from Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme 28 Sep 1066[245]. He defeated and killed King Harold at Hastings 14 Oct 1066, and made his way to London where he was crowned 25 Dec 1066 as WILLIAM I "the Conqueror" King of England.
http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/NORMANDY.htm#GuillaumeIIdied1087B
GUILLAUME de Normandie, illegitimate son of ROBERT II Duke of Normandy & his mistress Arlette --- (Château de Falaise, Normandy [1027/28]-Rouen, Prioré de Saint-Gervais 9 Sep 1087, bur Caen, Abbé de Saint-Etienne).
His birth date is estimated from William of Malmesbury, according to whom Guillaume was born of a concubine and was seven years old when his father left for Jerusalem[1], and Orderic Vitalis, who states that he was eight years old at the time[2]. Deville suggests that Guillaume´s birthdate can be fixed more precisely to [mid-1027], taking into account that his father Robert occupied Falaise immediately after the death of his father Duke Richard II (23 Aug 1026), not wishing to accept the authority of his older brother Duke Richard III, but that Robert´s stay was short as the two brothers were reconciled soon after, it being reasonable to suppose that Robert´s relationship with Guillaume´s mother occurred soon after his arrival at Falaise[3]. According to Orderic Vitalis, Alain III Duke of Brittany was appointed his guardian during his father's absence in 1035[4].
He succeeded his father in 1035 as GUILLAUME II Duke of Normandy. He helped Henri I King of France defeat Geoffroy II "Martel" Comte d'Anjou at Mouliherne in [1045/55][5]. It appears that Edward "the Confessor" King of England acknowledged Guillaume as successor to the English throne on several occasions, maybe for the first time during his visit to England in 1051 which is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[6]. Comte de Maine in 1063, after he conquered the county. In [1064/65], Duke Guillaume interceded with Guy de Ponthieu Comte d'Abbeville to secure the release of Harold Godwinsson from captivity in Normandy, in return for Harold's acknowledgement of Guillaume as successor to the English crown (according to the portrayal of the event in the Bayeux tapestry). Harold Godwinsson's visit to Normandy, and swearing allegiance to Duke William, is recorded by William of Jumièges[7].
According to Eadmer of Canterbury, the reason for his visit was to negotiate the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Haakon, both of whom had been hostages in Normandy since 1051. On his deathbed, King Edward "the Confessor" bequeathed the kingdom of England to Harold Godwinsson. Duke Guillaume branded Harold a perjurer and appealed to Pope Alexander II for support. After receiving a papal banner in response to his request, William gathered a sizable army during summer 1066 in preparation for invasion. After some delay due to unfavourable weather conditions, the army set sail for England from Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme 28 Sep 1066[8]. William defeated and killed King Harold at Hastings 14 Oct 1066[9], marched north to Canterbury, then west to Winchester where he captured the royal treasury. He proceeded to London where he was crowned 25 Dec 1066 as WILLIAM I "the Conqueror" King of England at Westminster Abbey, possibly by Ealdred Archbishop of York who may have officiated because of doubts concerning the validity of the appointment of Stigand as Archbishop of Canterbury. The latter had received his pallium in 1058 from Pope Benedict X, later regarded as anti-Pope, an appointment which had not been regularised by Pope Alexander II. He was crowned again at Winchester 1070 with a Papal crown. After taking several years to subdue the whole country, he imposed the Norman feudal structure and rule everywhere with methodical and harsh persistence. The minute description of the country contained in the Domesday Book, completed in 1086, enabled King William to create an effective tax base He died from wounds received at the siege of Mantes, having been injured internally after being thrown against the pommel of his saddle[10], leaving Normandy to his eldest son Robert and England to his second surviving son William.
Guillaume de Jumièges records the death of King William at Rouen on 9 Sep and his burial at Saint-Etienne, Caen[11]. Florence of Worcester records the death "Id Sep V" of King William and his burial "Cadomi in ecclesia S Stephani Protomartyris"[12]. The Brevis Relatio de Origine Willelmi Conquestoris records that "Willelmus…Roberti filius" was buried "Cadomi in ecclesia beati Stephani" which he had built[13].
m (Eu, Cathedral of Notre Dame [1050/52]%29 MATHILDE de Flandre, daughter of BAUDOUIN V "le Pieux/Insulanus" Count of Flanders & his wife Adela de France ([1032]-Caen 2 Nov 1083, bur Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity).
The Genealogica Comitum Flandriæ Bertiniana names (in order) "Balduinum Haanoniensem, et Robdbertum cognomento postea Iherosolimitanum, et Matilde uxorem Guillelmi regis Anglorum" as the children of "Balduinum Insulanum [et] Adelam"[14]. Her parentage is also stated by Orderic Vitalis[15]. She founded the abbey of la Trinité at Caen, as confirmed by an undated manuscript which records the death "pridie nonas julias" of "abbatissam Mathildem" in the 54th year in which she held the position and names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[16]. Florence of Worcester records that "comitissa Mahtilda de Normannia" came to England 23 Mar [1068] and was crowned "die Pentecostes [11 May]" by Aldred Archbishop of York[17].
Orderic Vitalis also records that she was crowned Queen of England 11 May 1068[18], presumably at Westminster Abbey or Winchester Cathedral although this appears to be unrecorded. Queen Matilda acted as regent in Normandy during her husband's absences in England. The necrology of the abbey of Saint-Denis records the death "IV Non Nov" of "Matildis Anglorum regina"[19]. Guillaume de Jumièges records the burial of Queen Mathilde on 3 Nov 1081 at Holy Trinity, Caen[20]. Florence of Worcester records the death "IV Non Nov" in [1083] of "regina Mahtilda" in Normandy and her burial at Caen[21].
King William I & his wife had ten children:
1. ROBERT de Normandie (Normandy [1052/54]-Cardiff Castle [3] Feb 1134, bur Gloucester Cathedral[22]). William of Malmesbury names Robert as eldest son of King William I[23]. "Roberti filii sui Normannorum comitis, Richardi filii sui…" subscribed the charter dated Apr 1067 under which "Willelmus…dux Normannorum…Anglorum rex" confirmed rights to the abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire[24]. Orderic Vitalis records that, after unsuccessfully aspiring to govern Normandy and Maine during the lifetime of his father, Robert rebelled in 1079 and went into exile in Flanders[25]. William of Malmesbury and Orderic Vitalis both state that he was assisted in his rebellion by Philippe I King of France and that he wounded his father in battle at Gerberoy[26]. He succeeded his father in 1087 as ROBERT “Curthose” Duke of Normandy, his nickname due, according to William of Malmesbury and Orderic Vitalis, to his short stature which he presumably inherited from his mother who was also reputed to have been very short[27]. He joined the contingent of Robert II Count of Flanders on the First Crusade in Sep 1096, together with Etienne Comte de Blois, after pledging the duchy of Normandy to his brother King William for 10,000 marks of silver in order to fund the expedition[28]. Following the capture of Jerusalem, Robert left Palestine to return to Europe in Sep 1099[29]. On returning to Normandy in Autumn 1100, he recovered his duchy without opposition[30]. He landed at Portsmouth in 1102 aiming to displace his brother King Henry I as king of England, but was persuaded to return to Normandy on payment of 3,000 marks[31]. His brother King Henry invaded Normandy and defeated Robert at the battle of Tinchebrai[32], declaring himself duke of Normandy 28 Sep 1106. King Henry took Robert in captivity back to England, where Robert remained in prison for the rest of his life. Robert of Torigny records the death in 1134 of "Robertus dux Normannorum filius Willermi regis…primogenitus" and his burial at Gloucester[33]. The Continuator of Florence of Worcester records the death at Cardiff in [1134] of "Rotbertus frater regis Heinrici quondam comes Normanniæ" and his burial in Gloucester[34].
- DUKES of NORMANDY.
2. RICHARD de Normandie (Normandy [1054 or 1056]-1075 or 1081, bur Winchester Cathedral). William of Malmesbury records that he was the second son of King William I[35]. "The next-born after Robert" according to Orderic Vitalis[36] who, from the context of this passage appears to be taking into account daughters as well as sons in his list of the king's children although, critically for deciding the birth order of the older children, he omits Cecilia in this section. "Roberti filii sui Normannorum comitis, Richardi filii sui…" subscribed the charter dated Apr 1067 under which "Willelmus…dux Normannorum…Anglorum rex" confirmed rights to the abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire[37]. Duc de Bernay, in Normandy. According to William of Malmesbury, he "contracted a disorder from a stream of foul air while hunting deer in the New Forest"[38]. Florence of Worcester records that "Willelmi iunioris germanus Ricardus" was killed in the New Forest long before, when recording the death of his brother King William II[39]. Orderic Vitalis recounts that "when a youth who had not yet received the belt of knighthood, had gone hunting in the New Forest and whilst he was galloping in pursuit of a wild beast he had been badly crushed between a strong hazel branch and the pommel of his saddle, and mortally injured" dying soon after[40]. Guillaume de Jumièges records a similar, but less specific, story, saying that Richard was hunting, knocked himself against a tree, fell ill and died from his injury[41].
3. ADELAIDE [Adelisa] de Normandie ([1055]-7 Dec, 1066 or after). Orderic Vitalis records the betrothal of Adelaide and Harold Godwinson, listing her after Agatha and before Constance in his description of the careers of the daughters of King William[42]. The sources are contradictory concerning the name of the daughter betrothed to Harold Godwinson, as well as the timing of her death. The only near certainty is that it would presumably have been the oldest available daughter who was betrothed to Harold. Matthew of Paris does not name her but lists her fourth among the daughters of King William, while distinguishing her from the fifth daughter betrothed to "Aldefonso Galiciæ regi"[43]. Guillaume de Jumièges records that Duke Guillaume betrothed his daughter Adelise to Harold, in a later passage (in which he does not repeat her name) stating that she was the third daughter and that she died a virgin although she was of an age to marry[44]. Chibnall specifies[45] that this reference is contained in the interpolations written by Orderic Vitalis, the latter chronicler therefore contradicting his statement in his own work that Agatha was the name of the daughter who was betrothed to King Harold. Orderic Vitalis says that Adelaide "a most fair maiden vowed herself to God when she reached marriageable age and made a pious end under the protection of Roger of Beaumont"[46]. The daughter betrothed to Harold was alive in early 1066, according to Eadmer of Canterbury[47] who says that Duke Guillaume requested King Harold, soon after his accession, to keep his promise to marry his daughter. This is contradicted by William of Malmesbury[48], who says that her death before that of Edward "the Confessor" was taken by King Harold II as marking absolution from his oath to Duke Guillaume. She died as a nun at Préaux[49]. A manuscript of la Trinité de Caen names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[50], which, if the order of names is significant, indicates that Adelaide was older than her two named sisters. The necrology of Chartres cathedral records the death "VII Id Dec" of "Adeliza filia regis Anglorum", stating that her father made a donation for her soul[51]. The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death of "Adelina filia regis Anglorum", undated but listed among deaths at the end of the calendar year[52]. Betrothed ([1064/65]%29 to HAROLD Godwinson Earl of Wessex, son of GODWIN Earl of Wessex & his wife Gytha of Denmark ([1022/25]-killed in battle Hastings 14 Oct 1066, bur [Waltham Abbey]), who succeeded in 1066 as HAROLD II King of England.
4. MATHILDE de Normandie (-26 Apr or 6 Jul [1113]). The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death "VI Kal Mai" of "Mathildis filia Willelmi regis Anglorum"[53]. She is not named as a daughter of King William by either William of Malmesbury or Orderic Vitalis. There is no basis for assessing her order of birth among the other known daughters of the king. An undated manuscript records the death "pridie nonas julias" of "abbatissam Mathildem" in the 54th year in which she held the position[54]. The same source names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[55]. If this is correct, and even assuming that she was appointed abbess as a child, Mathilde must have been one of the oldest of her father´s children, but younger than her sister Adelaide. Delisle dates her death to [1113][56], on the basis of Orderic Vitalis recording that her successor as abbess of la Trinité de Caen, her sister Cecilia, died 13 Jul 1127 after 14 years as abbess[57].
5. CECILIA de Normandie (-Caen 3/13 Jul [1126/27], bur Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity). She is named first in his list of King William's daughters by William of Malmesbury and by Matthew of Paris[58]. Orderic Vitalis, in his list of the king's children which appears to place both the sons and daughters together in birth order[59], unfortunately omits Cecilia, rendering it particularly difficult to decide if she was older or younger than her brother Richard. Guillaume de Jumièges names Cecile as eldest daughter, stating that she was a nun at the convent of Holy Trinity at Caen[60]. A manuscript at Caen names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[61], which, if the order of names is significant, indicates that Cecilia was younger than her sisters Adelaide and Mathilde. Her parents offered her as an oblate to the nunnery of the Holy Trinity, Caen (founded by her mother) 18 Jun 1066[62], probably in part to obtain divine blessing for her father´s project to invade England. She became a nun there in 1075[63], her tutor being Arnoul de Choques who later became Chancellor to her brother Robert "Curthose" Duke of Normandy, and subsequently Patriarch of Jerusalem[64]. She succeeded her sister Mathilde as abbess of la Trinité de Caen in [1113][65]. The Chronicon S. Stephani Cadomensis records the death in 1126 of "Cecilia Abbatissa, Willelmi Regis filia"[66].
6. GUILLAUME de Normandie ([1056/60]-killed in the New Forest 2 Aug 1100, bur Winchester Cathedral[67]). William of Malmesbury records that he was the third son of King William I[68]. He left his father's deathbed in Normandy in Sep 1087 to rush to England to claim the throne, succeeding as WILLIAM II “Rufus” King of England, crowned at Westminster Abbey 26 Sep 1087. Florence of Worcester records that King William was crowned "VI Kal Oct" of King William at Westminster Abbey[69]. His reign was characterised by bitter rivalry with his brother Robert in Normandy, even harsher imposition of Norman rule in England than by his father, and growing resentment of his ways among the nobility. Florence of Worcester records the death "IV Non Aug" of King William in the New Forest, killed by an arrow shot by "quodam Franco Waltero cognomento Tirello" [ch%C3%A2telain de Poix et de Pontoise], and his burial "Wintoniam in Veteri Monasterio in ecclesia S Petri"[70]. Orderic Vitalis records that he was killed while hunting, maybe murdered, by an arrow shot by Walter Tirel[71]. According to Orderic Vitalis, he "never had a lawful wife but gave himself up insatiably to obscene fornications and repeated adulteries"[72]. The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death "II Non Aug" of "Guillelmus rex Anglorum filius Guillelmi regis"[73].
7. CONSTANCE de Normandie (Normandy [1057/1061]-13 Aug 1090, bur Church of St Melans near Rhedon). Listed by Orderic Vitalis after Adelaide and before Adela in his description of the careers of the daughters of King William[74]. Named first in his list of the daughters of King William I by Matthew of Paris[75]. Guillaume de Jumièges names Constance as second daughter, naming her husband "Alain Fergant comte de la petite Bretagne et fils d'Hoel, qui avait succédé à Conan" and specifying that she died childless[76]. The Chronicon Ruyensis Cœnobii records the marriage in 1086 of "Alanus" and "Constantiam filiam Regis Anglorum Guillelmi"[77]. The Chronicon Kemperlegiensis records the marriage in 1087 of "Alanus Hoëli Consulis filius" and "Constantiam Guillelmi Regis Anglorum filiam"[78]. The Chronicon Britannico Alter records the marriage in 1088 of "Alanus" and "Constantiam filam Regis Guillelmi Anglorum"[79]. Orderic Vitalis records that she was married in Bayeux[80]. William of Malmesbury lists her as second daughter after Cecilia, adding that "she excited the inhabitants [of Brittany] by the severity of her justice to administer a poisonous potion to her"[81]. Orderic Vitalis, on the other hand, says that she "did everything in her power to further the welfare of her subjects" and "was deeply grieved when she died"[82]. "Alanus dux Britannorum et Constantia uxor eius" donated property to the priory of Livré by charter dated 31 Jul 1089[83]. The Chronicon Britannico Alter records the death in 1090 of "Constantia Alani coniux…sine liberis"[84]. The Chronicon Universum in the cartulary of Sainte-Croix de Quimperlé records the death in 1090 of "Constantia comitissa filia regis Anglorum"[85]. m (Bayeux [1086/88]) as his first wife, ALAIN IV “Fergant” Duke of Brittany, son of HOËL V Comte de Cornouaille, de Léon et de Nantes & his wife Havise heiress of Brittany (-13 Oct 1119).
8. AGATHE de Normandie (-before 1074, bur Bayeux Cathedral). Listed by Orderic Vitalis after Richard and before Adelaide in his description of the careers of the children of King William[86]. According to William of Malmesbury, an unnamed daughter of King William was "affianced by messengers" to King Alfonso[87]. Orderic Vitalis names her Agatha, identifying her as the daughter who had been betrothed to Harold Godwinson (see above), and says that she was betrothed to "Amfursio regi Galliciæ"[88]. Matthew of Paris places her as the fifth daughter (unnamed) betrothed to "Aldefonso Galiciæ regi", but different from the daughter betrothed to Harold[89]. Orderic says that she died en route to Spain, her body being brought back to Bayeux for burial[90]. The betrothal to Alfonso must have been a short-lived arrangement as he married his first wife in 1069[91]. Betrothed (by proxy Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity [before 1069]) to ALFONSO VI King of Galicia and Leon, son of FERNANDO I King of Castile & his wife Infanta doña Sancha de Léon (Compostela [1037]-Toledo 30 Jun 1109, bur Sahagún, León, San Mancio chapel in the royal monastery of Santos Facundo y Primitivo). He succeeded in 1072 as ALFONSO VI King of Castile. [Betrothed ([after 1069]) to SIMON du Vexin, son of RAOUL III “le Grand” Comte de Valois & his first wife Aélis de Bar-sur-Aube (-[30 Sep/1 Oct] 1080 Rome, bur 1082 Rome St Peter). The Vita Simonis records a ficitional speech of William I King of England in which he offers his (unnamed) daughter's hand to Simon, specifying that she had previously been betrothed to "regis Hispaniarum Anfursi et Roberti principis Apuliæ"[92]. The supposed betrothal to Robert of Apulia (which would have to refer to Robert "Guiscard" Duke of Apulia) is unrecorded in the numerous other sources dealing with his life and is probably pure fantasy. This does not instil confidence with respect to the historical accuracy of the whole passage, but if it is correct the daughter in question would presumably have been Agatha who was probably the daughter of King William betrothed to "Amfursio regi Galliciæ" (see above). Count Simon resigned his county in 1077, became a monk and went on pilgrimage to Rome where he died[93].]
9. ADELA de Normandie (Normandy [1066/67]-Marigney-sur-Loire 8 Mar 1138, bur Abbey of Holy Trinity, Caen). She is listed by Orderic Vitalis last among the daughters of King William in his description of their careers[94]. Named third in his list of the daughters of King William I by Matthew of Paris[95], but this appears unlikely in view of Adela's child-bearing until her husband's death in 1102. Her birth date is estimated bearing in mind that marriage frequently took place in early adolescence at the time, and also because Adela clearly continued to bear children right up to her husband's death. Orderic Vitalis records that she encouraged her husband to join the First Crusade and did not hide her shame when he deserted from Antioch in 1098[96]. Regent of Blois 1102-1107, after the death of her husband. She became a nun at the Cluniac priory of Marigney-sur-Loire in [1122]. The necrology of Chartres cathedral records the death "VIII Id Mar" of "Adela comitissa"[97], and in another manuscript the death "VIII Id Mar" of "Adela nobilis Blesensium comitissa regis Anglorum Willelmi filia"[98]. m (Betrothed Breteuil[99] 1080, Chartres[100] 1081) ETIENNE [Henri] de Blois, son of THIBAUT III Comte de Blois & his [first/second wife Gersende de Maine/Gundrada ---] (-killed in battle Ramleh 19 May 1102). He succeeded his father in 1089 as ETIENNE Comte de Blois, de Chartres, de Châteaudun, de Sancerre et de Meaux.
a) ETIENNE de Blois (Blois [1096/97]-Dover 25 Oct 1154, bur Faversham Abbey, Kent). After the death of his uncle Henry I King of England, he crossed at once to England before his rival, King Henry's daughter Maud, and had himself crowned as STEPHEN King of England at Westminster Abbey 22 Dec 1135.
- other children: COMTES de BLOIS.
10. HENRY of England (Selby, Yorkshire Sep 1068-Saint-Denis le Ferment, Forêt d’Angers near Rouen 1/2 Dec 1135, bur Reading Abbey, Berkshire). Orderic Vitalis records that Henry was born "within a year" of his mother's coronation on 11 May 1068[101]. He succeeded his brother 3 Aug 1100 as HENRY I “Beauclerc” King of England.
Wikipedia
William I (about 1027 or 1028[1] – 9 September 1087), better known as William the Conqueror (French: Guillaume le Conquérant), was Duke of Normandy from 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name. In particular, before his conquest of England, he was known as "William the Bastard" (French: Guillaume le Bâtard) because of the illegitimacy of his birth.
Descendants
William is known to have had nine children, though Agatha, a tenth daughter who died a virgin, appears in some sources. Several other unnamed daughters are also mentioned as being betrothed to notable figures of that time. Despite rumours to the contrary (such as claims that William Peverel was a bastard of William)[20] there is no evidence that he had any illegitimate children,[21] (see list above)
To press his claim to the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans, Bretons, Flemings, and Frenchmen to victory over the English forces of King Harold Godwinson (who died in the conflict) at the Battle of Hastings, and suppressed subsequent English revolts in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.[2]
His reign, which brought Norman-French culture to England, had an impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. The details of that impact and the enormity of the changes have been debated by scholars for over a century. In addition to the obvious change of ruler, his reign also saw a programme of building and fortification, changes to the English language, a shift in the upper levels of society and the church, and adoption of some aspects of continental church reform. More controversial are possible changes in law, royal administration, trade, agriculture, the peasantry, women's roles and rights, and education.
Early life
William was born in Falaise, Normandy, the illegitimate and only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, who named him as heir to Normandy. His mother, Herleva (a name with several variant versions), who later married and bore two sons to Herluin de Conteville, was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise (possibly Fulbert de Tonnerre). In addition to his two half-brothers, Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, William had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy, another child of Robert. Later in his life, the enemies of William are reported to have called him alternately William the Bastard, and deride him as the son of a tanner, and the residents of besieged Alençon hung animal skins from the city walls to taunt him.
William is believed to have been born in either 1027 or 1028, and more likely in the autumn of the later year.[1][notes 1] He was born the grandnephew of Queen Emma of Normandy, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and later, wife of King Canute the Great.[3]
William's illegitimacy affected his early life and he was known to contemporaries as 'William the Bastard'. Nevertheless, when his father died, he was recognised as the heir.[4]
Duke of Normandy
By his father's will, William succeeded him as Duke of Normandy at age seven in 1035. Plots by rival Norman noblemen to usurp his place cost William three guardians, though not Count Alan III of Brittany, who was a later guardian. William was supported by King Henry I of France, however. He was knighted by Henry at age 15. By the time William turned 19 he was successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating rebel Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047, obtaining the Truce of God, which was backed by the Roman Catholic Church.
Against the wishes of Pope Leo IX, William married Matilda of Flanders in 1053 in the chapel at Eu, Normandy (Seine-Maritime). At the time, William was about 24 years old and Matilda was 22. William is said to have been a faithful and loving husband, and their marriage produced four sons and six daughters. In repentance for what was a consanguine marriage (they were distant cousins), William donated St-Stephen's church (l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Matilda donated Sainte-Trinité church (Abbaye aux Dames).
Feeling threatened by the increase in Norman power resulting from William's noble marriage, Henry I attempted to invade Normandy twice (1054 and 1057), without success. Already a charismatic leader, William attracted strong support within Normandy, including the loyalty of his half-brothers Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, who played significant roles in his life. Later, he benefited from the weakening of two competing power centers as a result of the deaths of Henry I and of Geoffrey II of Anjou, in 1060. In 1062 William invaded and took control of the county of Maine, which had been a fief of Anjou.[5]
English succession
Upon the death of the childless Edward the Confessor, the English throne was fiercely disputed by three claimants—William; Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex; and the Viking King Harald III of Norway, known as Harald Hardrada. William had a tenuous blood claim through his great aunt Emma (wife of Ethelred and mother of Edward). William also contended that Edward, who had spent much of his life in exile in Normandy during the Danish occupation of England, had promised him the throne when he visited Edward in London in 1052. Further, William claimed that Harold had pledged allegiance to him in 1064: William had rescued the shipwrecked Harold from the count of Ponthieu, and together they had defeated Conan II, Count of Brittany. On that occasion, William had knighted Harold; he had also, however, deceived Harold by having him swear loyalty to William himself over the concealed bones of a saint.[6]
In January 1066, however, in accordance with Edward's last will and by vote of the Witenagemot, Harold Godwinson was crowned King by Archbishop Aldred.
Norman Invasion
See also Wikipedia on The Norman Conquest of England Meanwhile, William submitted his claim to the English throne to Pope Alexander II, who sent him a consecrated banner in support. Then, William organized a council of war at Lillebonne and in January openly began assembling an army in Normandy. Offering promises of English lands and titles, he amassed at Dives-sur-Mer a huge invasion fleet, supposedly of 696 ships. This carried an invasion force which included, in addition to troops from William's own territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies and volunteers from Britanny, north-eastern France and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of France and from the Norman colonies in southern Italy. In England, Harold assembled a large army on the south coast and a fleet of ships to guard the English Channel.[6]
Fortuitously for William, his crossing was delayed by eight months of unfavourable winds. William managed to keep his army together during the wait, but Harold's was diminished by dwindling supplies and falling morale with the arrival of the harvest season, he disbanded his army on 8 September.[7] Harold also consolidated his ships in London, leaving the English Channel unguarded. Then came the news that the other contender for the throne, Harald III of Norway, allied with Tostig Godwinson, had landed ten miles from York. Harold again raised his army and after a four day forced march defeated Harald and Tostig on 25 September.
On 12 September the wind direction turned and William's fleet sailed. A storm blew up and the fleet was forced to take shelter at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme and again wait for the wind to change. On 27 September the Norman fleet finally set sail, landing in England at Pevensey Bay (Sussex) on 28 September. Thence William moved to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a prefabricated wooden castle for a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the hinterland and waited for Harold's return from the north.[7]
William chose Hastings as it was at the end of a long peninsula flanked by impassable marshes. The battle was on the isthmus. William at once built a fort at Hastings to guard his rear against potential arrival of Harold's fleet from London. Having landed his army, William was less concerned about desertion and could have waited out the winter storms, raided the surrounding area for horses and started a campaign in the spring. Harold had been reconnoitering the south of England for some time and well appreciated the need to occupy this isthmus at once.[8]
Battle of Hastings
See also Wikipedia on The Battle of Hastings Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, marched his army 241 mi (388 km) to meet the invading William in the south. On 13 October, William received news of Harold's march from London. At dawn the next day, William left the castle with his army and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill/Senlac ridge (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about seven miles from Hastings.
The Battle of Hastings lasted all day. Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few if any archers.[9] Along the ridge's border, formed as a wall of shields, the English soldiers at first stood so effectively that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. William rallied his troops reportedly raising his helmet, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry, to quell rumors of his death. Meanwhile, many of the English had pursued the fleeing Normans on foot, allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly from the rear as his infantry pretended to retreat further.[10] Norman arrows also took their toll, progressively weakening the English wall of shields. At dusk, the English army made their last stand. A final Norman cavalry attack decided the battle irrevocably when it resulted in the death of Harold who, legend says, was killed by an arrow in the eye. Two of his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine Godwinson, were killed as well. By nightfall, the Norman victory was complete and the remaining English soldiers fled in fear.
Battles of the time rarely lasted more than two hours before the weaker side capitulated; that Hastings lasted nine hours indicates the determination of William and Harold. Battles also ended at sundown regardless of who was winning. Harold was killed shortly before sunset and, as he would have received fresh reinforcements before the battle recommenced in the morning, he was assured of victory had he survived William's final cavalry attack.
March to London
For two weeks, William waited for a formal surrender of the English throne, but the Witenagemot proclaimed the quite young Edgar Ætheling King instead, though without coronation. Thus, William's next target was London, approaching through the important territories of Kent, via Dover and Canterbury, inspiring fear in the English. However, at London, William's advance was beaten back at London Bridge, and he decided to march westward and to storm London from the northwest. After receiving continental reinforcements, William crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and there he forced the surrender of Archbishop Stigand (one of Edgar's lead supporters), in early December. William reached Berkhamsted a few days later where Ætheling relinquished the English crown personally and the exhausted Saxon noblemen of England surrendered definitively. Although William was acclaimed then as English King, he requested a coronation in London. As William I, he was formally crowned on Christmas day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, by Archbishop Aldred[6]. According to some sources, the ceremony was not a peaceful one. Alarmed by some noises coming from the Abbey, the Norman guards stationed outside that they set fire to the neighbouring houses. A Norman monk later wrote "As the fire spread rapidly, the people in the church were thrown into confusion and crowds of them rushed outside, some to fight the flames, others to take the chance to go looting."
English resistance
Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance in the north continued for six more years until 1072. During the first two years, King William I suffered many revolts throughout England (Dover, western Mercia, Exeter) and Wales. Also, in 1068, Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-western peninsula, but William defeated them.
For William I, the worst crisis came from Northumbria, which had still not submitted to his realm. In 1068, with Edgar Ætheling, both Mercia and Northumbria revolted. William could suppress these, but Edgar fled to Scotland where Malcolm III of Scotland protected him. Furthermore, Malcolm married Edgar's sister Margaret, with much éclat, stressing the English balance of power against William. Under such circumstances, Northumbria rebelled, besieging York. Then, Edgar resorted also to the Danes, who disembarked with a large fleet at Northumbria, claiming the English crown for their King Sweyn II. Scotland joined the rebellion as well. The rebels easily captured York and its castle. However, William could contain them at Lincoln. After dealing with a new wave of revolts at western Mercia, Exeter, Dorset, and Somerset, William defeated his northern foes decisively at the River Aire, retrieving York, while the Danish army swore to depart.
William then devastated Northumbria between the Humber and Tees rivers, with what was described as the Harrying of the North. This devastation included setting fire to the vegetation, houses and even tools to work the fields. He also burnt crops, killed livestock and sowed the fields and land with salt, to stunt growth. After this cruel treatment the land did not recover for more than 100 years. The region ended up absolutely deprived, losing its traditional autonomy towards England. However it may have stopped future rebellions, frightening the English into obedience. Then the Danish king disembarked in person, readying his army to restart the war, but William suppressed this threat with a payment of gold. In 1071, William defeated the last rebellion of the north through an improvised pontoon, subduing the Isle of Ely, where the Danes had gathered. In 1072, he invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to a peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy and Malcolm gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace.[11] In 1074, Edgar Ætheling submitted definitively to William.
In 1075, during William's absence, the Revolt of the Earls was confronted successfully by Odo. In 1080, William dispatched his half brothers Odo and Robert to storm Northumbria and Scotland, respectively. Eventually, the Pope protested that the Normans were mistreating the English people. Before quelling the rebellions, William had conciliated with the English church; however, he persecuted it ferociously afterwards.
Events
As would be habit for his descendants, William spent much of his time (11 years, since 1072) in Normandy, ruling the islands through his writs. Nominally still a vassal state, owing its entire loyalty to the French king, Normandy arose suddenly as a powerful region, alarming the other French dukes who reacted by persistently attacking the duchy. William became focused on conquering Brittany, and the French King Philip I admonished him. A treaty was concluded after his aborted invasion of Brittany in 1076, and William betrothed Constance to the Breton Duke Hoel's son, the future Alan IV of Brittany. The wedding occurred only in 1086, after Alan's accession to the throne, and Constance died childless a few years later.
William's elder son Robert, enraged by a prank of his brothers William and Henry, who had doused him with filthy water, undertook what became a large scale rebellion against his father's rule. Only with King Philip's additional military support was William able to confront Robert, who was then based in Flanders. During the battle of 1079, William was unhorsed and wounded by Robert, who lowered his sword only after recognizing him. The embarrassed William returned to Rouen, abandoning the expedition. In 1080, Matilda reconciled both, and William restored Robert's inheritance.
Odo caused trouble for William, too, and was imprisoned in 1082, losing his English estate and all his royal functions, but retaining his religious duties. In 1083, Matilda died, and William became more tyrannical over his realm.
Reforms William initiated many major changes. He increased the function of the traditional English shires (autonomous administrative regions), which he brought under central control; he decreased the power of the earls by restricting them to one shire apiece. All administrative functions of his government remained fixed at specific English towns, except the court itself; they would progressively strengthen, and the English institutions became amongst the most sophisticated in Europe. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and to improve taxation, William commissioned all his counselors for the compilation of the Domesday Book, which was published in 1086. The book was a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census.
William also ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, among them the Tower of London's foundation (the White Tower), to be built throughout England. These ensured effectively that the many rebellions by the English people or his own followers did not succeed. William I built the central White Tower in the Tower of London.
His conquest also led to French (especially, but not only, the Norman French) replacing English as the language of the ruling classes for nearly 300 years.[12][13] Furthermore, the original Anglo-Saxon culture of England became mingled with the Norman one; thus the Anglo-Norman culture came into being. The chapel in the White Tower was built in the Norman style by William, using Caen stone imported from France.
William is said to have eliminated the native aristocracy in as little as four years. Systematically, he despoiled those English aristocrats who either opposed the Normans or who died without issue. Thus, most English estates and titles of nobility were handed to the Norman noblemen. Many English aristocrats fled to Flanders and Scotland; others may have been sold into slavery overseas. Some escaped to join the Byzantine Empire's Varangian Guard, and went on to fight the Normans in Sicily. By 1070, the indigenous nobility had ceased to be an integral part of the English landscape, and by 1086, it maintained control of just 8% of its original land-holdings.[14] However, to the new Norman noblemen, William handed the English parcels of land piecemeal, dispersing these widely, ensuring nobody would try conspiring against him without jeopardizing their own estates within the still unstable post-invasion England. Effectively, this strengthened William's political stand as a monarch.
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting.[15] Modern historians, however, have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest.[16]
Death, burial, and succession In 1087 in France, William burned Mantes (50 km west of Paris), besieging the town. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries from the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons, sparking strife between them. Despite William's reluctance, his combative elder son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy, as Robert II. William Rufus (his third son) was next English king, as William II. William's youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which would be earmarked to buy land. He also became King Henry I of England after William II died without issue. While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries, including Odo.
William died at age 59 at the Convent of St Gervais in Rouen, capital city of Normandie, France, on 9 September 1087. William was buried in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, which he had erected, in Caen, Normandy. It is said that Herluin, his step-father, loyally bore his body to his grave.[17]
The original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry had to pay on the spot. In a most unregal postmortem, it was found that William's corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus as his body had bloated due to the warm weather and length of time that had passed since his death. A group of bishops applied pressure on the king's abdomen to force the body downward but the abdominal wall burst and putrefaction drenched the king's coffin "filling the church with a foul smell". William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription; the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen, and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur, some skin particles and bone dust remain in the tomb.
Legacy William's invasion was the last time that England was successfully conquered by a foreign power. Although there would be a number of other attempts over the centuries, the best that could be achieved would be excursions by foreign troops, such as the Raid on the Medway during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, but no actual conquests such as William's. There have however been occasions since that time when foreign rulers have succeeded to the English/British throne, notably the Dutch Stadtholder William III of Orange who in 1688, with his Dutch army, was invited by prominent English politicians to invade England with the intention of deposing the Catholic king James II (see Glorious Revolution) and George of Hanover b. 1660, who acceded by virtue of the exclusion of Roman Catholics from the succession.
As Duke of Normandy and King of England he divided his realm among his sons, but the lands were reunited under his son Henry, and his descendants acquired other territories through marriage or conquest and, at their height, these possessions would be known as the Angevin Empire.
They included many lands in France, such as Normandy and Aquitaine, but the question of jurisdiction over these territories would be the cause of much conflict and bitter rivalry between England and France, which took up much of the Middle Ages, including the Hundred Years War and, some might argue, continued as far as the Battle of Waterloo of 1815.
An example of William's legacy even in modern times can be seen on the Bayeux Memorial, a monument erected by Britain in the Normandy town of Bayeux to those killed in the Battle of Normandy during World War II. A Latin inscription on the memorial reads NOS A GULIELMO VICTI VICTORIS PATRIAM LIBERAVIMUS – freely translated, this reads "We, once conquered by William, have now set free the Conqueror's native land".[18]
Physical appearance No authentic portrait of William has been found. Nonetheless, he was depicted as a man of fair stature with remarkably strong arms, "with which he could shoot a bow at full gallop". William showed a magnificent appearance, possessing a fierce countenance. He enjoyed excellent health until old age; nevertheless his noticeable corpulence in later life increased eventually so much that French King Philip I commented that William looked like a pregnant woman.[19] Examination of his femur, the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately 5' 10" tall which was around two inches taller than the average for the 11th century.[20]
Fictional depictions William I has appeared as a character in only a few stage and screen productions. The one-act play A Choice of Kings by John Mortimer deals with his deception of Harold after the latter's shipwreck. Julian Glover portrayed him in a 1966 TV adaptation of this play in the ITV Play of the Week series.
William has also been portrayed on screen by Thayer Roberts in the film Lady Godiva of Coventry (1955), John Carson in the BBC TV series Hereward the Wake (1965), Alan Dobie in the two-part BBC TV play Conquest (1966; part of the series Theatre 625), and Michael Gambon in the TV drama Blood Royal: William the Conqueror (1990).
On a less serious note, he has been portrayed by David Lodge in an episode of the TV comedy series Carry On Laughing entitled "One in the Eye for Harold" (1975), James Fleet in the humorous BBC show The Nearly Complete and Utter History of Everything (1999), and Gavin Abbott in an episode "1066" (2004).
Notes
1. ^ The official web site of the British Monarchy puts his birth at "around 1028", which may reasonably be taken as definitive.
The frequently encountered date of 14 October 1024 is likely to be spurious. It was promulgated by Thomas Roscoe in his 1846 biography The life of William the Conqueror. The year 1024 is apparently calculated from the fictive deathbed confession of William recounted by Ordericus Vitalis (who was about twelve when the Conqueror died); in it William allegedly claimed to be about sixty-three or four years of age at his death bed in 1087. The birth day and month are suspiciously the same as those of the Battle of Hastings. This date claim, repeated by other Victorian historians (e.g. Jacob Abbott), has been entered unsourced into the LDS genealogical database, and has found its way thence into countless personal genealogies. Cf. The Conqueror and His Companions by J.R. Planché, Somerset Herald. London: Tinsley Brothers, 1874.
References
1. ^ a b c Bates, David (2001). William the Conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. pp. 33. ISBN 0-7524-1980-3.
2. ^ Dr. Mike Ibeji (2001-05-01). "1066". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-16.
3. ^ Powell, John, Magill's Guide to Military History, Salem Press, Inc., 2001, p. 226. ISBN 0893560197.
4. ^ Official Website of the British Monarchy. William I 'The Conqueror' (r. 1066–1087. Kings and Queens of England (to 1603). Retrieved on: 12 October 2008.
5. ^ David Carpenter, The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066-1284 (2003).
6. ^ a b c Clark, George (1978) [1971]. "The Norman Conquest". English History: A Survey. Oxford University Press/Book Club Associates. ISBN 0198223390.
7. ^ a b Carpenter, p. 72.
8. ^ N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, Vol 1: 660-1649, pp. 32–35.
9. ^ Carpenter, p. 73.
10. ^ Ibid.
11. ^ J.D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (1964), page 45.
12. ^ While English emerged as a popular vernacular and literary language within one hundred years of the Conquest, it was only in 1362 that King Edward III abolished the use of French in Parliament
13. ^ Alexander Herman Schutz and Urban Tigner Holmes, A History of the French Language, Biblo and Tannen Publishers, 1938. pp. 44–45. ISBN 0819601918.
14. ^ Douglas, David Charles. English Historical Documents, Routledge, 1996, p. 22. ISBN 0415143675.
15. ^ Based on William of Malmesbury's Historia Anglorum.
He was of just stature, ordinary corpulence, fierce countenance; his forehead was bare of hair; of such great strength of arm that it was often a matter of surprise, that no one was able to draw his bow, which himself could bend when his horse was in full gallop; he was majestic whether sitting or standing, although the protuberance of his belly deformed his royal person; of excellent health so that he was never confined with any dangerous disorder, except at the last; so given to the pleasures of the chase, that as I have before said, ejecting the inhabitants, he let a space of many miles grow desolate that, when at liberty from other avocations, he might there pursue his pleasures.
See English Monarch: The House of Normandy.
16. ^ Young, Charles R. (1979). The Royal Forests of Medieval England. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-8122-7760-0.
17. ^ Freeman, Edward A., William the Conqueror (1902), p. 276-277
18. ^ [1], retrieved 10 October 2008.
19. ^ Spartacus Schoolnet, retrieved 17 July 2007.
20. ^ The Year of the Conqueror by Alan Lloyd
21. ^ The Conqueror and His Companions (J.R Planche 1874)
22. ^ William "the Conqueror" (Guillaume "le Conquérant").
Further reading
* Douglas, David C. (1999) William the Conqueror; the Norman impact upon England, Yale English monarchs series, London : Yale University Press, 476 p., ISBN 0-300-07884-6
* Howarth, David (1977) 1066 The Year of the Conquest, London : Collins, 207 p., ISBN 0-00-211845-9
* Prescott, Hilda F.M. (1932) Son of Dust, reprinted 1978: London : White Lion, 288 p. ISBN 0-85617-239-1
* Savage, Anne (transl. and coll.) (2002) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, London : Greenwich Editions, 288 p., ISBN 0-86288-440-3
* Wensby-Scott, Carol. (1984) Proud Conquest, London : Futura Publications, 240 p., IBSN 0-7088-2620-2
==English Monarchs== From http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/normans.htm
Parentage and Early Life England's first Norman king, William I, was born in 1028, at Falaise Castle, the illegitimate son of Robert the Devil or the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleve, (sometimes called Arlette) the daughter of Fullbert, a tanner of Falaise. Before history renamed him the Conqueror he was more commonly known to his contemporaries as William the Bastard. Herleve was reported to have attracted Duke Robert with her dancing, in some accounts, he is said to have first caught sight of her while she was washing her linen in the castle moat.
The Norman dynasty had been founded by Robert's ancestor Rollo or Hrolf the Ganger, a Viking raider chief, who was granted the duchy by Charles the Simple, King of France, in 911, at the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, in exchange for feudal alliegiance and conversion to Christianity at which he took the baptismal name of Robert.
William's mother, Herleve, also had a daughter, Adelaide, to Duke Robert. Although they had a long relationship, the gap in their social standing rendered marriage out of the question and Herleve was married off to one of Robert's vassals, Herluin, a knight. From this marriage, Herleve produced two further sons, Robert, who later became Count of Mortain and Odo, destined to become Bishop of Bayeux and also to play a part in England's history.
William, Duke of Normandy Duke Robert decided to expiate his sins, which were many, by going on pilgrimage in 1034. Since he had no legitimate heir to succeed him, he persuaded his unruly barons to accept the illegitimate William as future Duke of Normandy. On his return journey from the Holy Land Robert died suddenly and the young William succeeded to the Dukedom by his father's will.
The barons exhibited no loyalty to the"'base born" child and thereafter William grew up in the school of adversity. He had to learn, very early, how to survive. The barons constantly rebelled and anarchy reigned in Normandy during the years of William's minority. William's guardians were murdered in succession. Osbern was killed whilst guarding his door. His maternal uncle, Walter, at one point resorted to hiding the child with some poor people. William was formed and moulded by this savage and insecure childhood into the stark and often ruthless ruler he was later to become.
In 1047, he asserted his authority and crushed the rebels at Val-es-Dunes after which he began to restore order in his Dukedom. At Alencon, the burghers insulted his birth by hanging "hides for the tanner" over the walls. On taking the town he exacted a terrible revenge and had both their hands and feet amputated. One of lifes great survivors, William finally emerged as undisputed Duke of Normandy.
William's appearance William matured into a tall, thick set man with dark hair, which receeded from his forehead early. His voice was rasping and guttural. William undoubtedly possessed considerable powers of leadership and courage. He was devout and inspired loyalty in his followers, but could also be ruthless and cruel.
William of Malmesbury provides us with a detailed description of the king in his Historia Anglorum:-
'He was of just stature, ordinary corplulence, fierce countenance; his forehead was bare of hair; of such great strength of arm that it was often a matter of surprise, that no one was able to draw his bow, which himself could bend when his horse was in full gallop; he was majestic whether sitting or standing, although the protuberance of his belly deformed his royal person; of excellent health so that he was never confined with any dangerous disorder, except at the last; so given to the pleasures of the chase, that as I have before said, ejecting the inhabitants, he let a space of many miles grow desolate that, when at liberty from other avocations, he might there pursue his pleasures.
His anxiety for money is the only thing on which he can deservedly be blamed. This he sought all opportunities of scraping together, he cared not how; he would say and do some things and indeed almost anything, unbecoming to such great majesty, where the hope of money allured him. I have here no excuse whatever to offer, unless it be, as one has said, that of necessity he must fear many, whom many fear.'
William negotiated a marriage in 1049 to Matilda, a descendant of the old Saxon House of Wessex and daughter of Baldwin, Count of Flanders and Adela, daughter of Robert II, King of France. They were an ill-assorted pair, he strongly built and five feet ten inches tall and she ( as it emerged when her skeleton was exhumed) just over four feet tall, almost a dwarf. It proved however, to be a highly successful union and produced a large family.
The Conquest of England The Duke of Normandy visited his English cousin, Edward the Confessor, in 1051. Edward and his brother Alfred had spent much of their childhood in exile at the Norman Court, their mother, Emma, had been a daughter of the House of Normandy. During this visit, Edward is purported to have promised his Norman cousin the crown of England, should he die without issue. The real heir was Edgar the Atheling, Edward's great-nephew, the grandson of his elder brother Edmund Ironside, but he was still a child and knew little of England, having spent much of his life in exile in Hungary. Others also coveted the English throne, the chief candidate amongst these was Harold, son of the powerful Godwine, Earl of Wessex.
Harold was unfortunately shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy, where he found himself the unwilling guest of Duke William. The Confessor was now unlikely to survive long and Harold was anxious to return to England to forward his ambitions there. However, before he would allow his guest to leave, William required him to swear an oath to support his claim to the crown upon Edward's death. Under duress, Harold finally consented and swore the oath on holy relics.
Edward the Confessor finally breathed his last in January, 1066, and was buried in his foundation of St.Peter, Westminster, which had been consecrated but ten days previously. It was reported that on his deathbed he had nominated Harold as his successor who was duly accepted as King by the Saxon Witangemot or council of elders, which traditionally elected the next English King.
Back in Normandy, on reciept of this ominous news, the formidable Duke William flew into a rage. He began to build an invasion fleet to take by force what he considered to be his by right. The Pope himself, due to Harold's foresworn oath on holy relics, supported William's enterprise. After Harold was crowned by Archbishop Stigand, a portentous star was seen in the skies, this has now been identified as Halley's comet, many in that superstitious age saw it as an omen of the wrath of God on the perjured King Harold and his followers.
Harold assembled the fyrdd, the Saxon militia of freemen, in preparation for William's imminent landing, whilst the Duke prepared his fleet and waited for good weather to set sail for England. In mid September, Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, invaded England, accompanied by Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, Harold's unruly and discontented brother, who had earlier been banished and his earldom confiscated.
Harold marched his army north in haste to meet the invaders at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, where he won a decisive victory over the Viking army. At this time, the winds William had been pensively awaiting turned favourable and he set sail with his massive invasion fleet. News of his landing at Bulverhythe was conveyed to Harold, who responded by hurrying south to meet him, giving his exhausted army no respite. Had Harold rested and reorganized his army, the outcome of the impending battle and English history could have been very different.
On 14th October, the Saxon and Norman forces clashed in the fateful Battle of Hastings. Harold took up a defensive position on Senlac Ridge. The Norman army was thus forced to attack uphill, placing them at a disadvantage.
The Saxon army formed a shield wall along the edge of the hill which rebuffed repeated Norman attacks. A rumour arose in the Norman ranks that Duke William was dead, causing panic and flight. Many of the Saxon fyrdd pursued the fleeing Normans down the hill. William put heart into his army by loudly announcing he still lived. The Normans rallied, Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were both slain on the battlefield.
The battle continued for most of the day, Harold and his Saxons fought with steely determination for possession of their country. As dusk began to fall over Hastings, William ordered his archers to fire high into the air and one of these arrows is said to have hit Harold in the eye, blinding him, although this point is disputed by some sources. Whether this was the case or not, Harold fell mortally wounded under the dragon standard of Wessex.
The Saxon army, seeing that the day was lost, began to flee the field. The houscarls, Harold's trained professional militia, loyally and valiantly defended the body of their King to the last, but they too finally fell and Harold's body was mutilated by the Normans, a vindictive act, which William punished. The battle was lost and Anglo-Saxon England died with Harold on the battlefield that day.
Click for a fuller account of the Battle of Hasings
Harold's deeply distressed mistress, Edith Swan-neck came to William pleading for her lover's body and offering him its weight in gold in exchange, but William coldly refused her distraught request. He had Harold buried in a secret location.
William proceeded to London, where he was crowned King of England at Edward the Confessor's foundation of Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066.
He accepted the surrender of the Saxon Earls Edwine and Morkere along with that of the child claimant, Edgar Atheling and defeated the heroic Hereward the Wake at Ely. On the whole the south of England submitted to Norman rule, whereas in the north resistance was more prolonged. William responded by subjecting the English to a reign of terror. Determined to punish and crush rebellion to his rule and strike abject fear into English hearts, he laid waste vast tracts of Yorkshire, which suffered under a great famine for nine years after as a result. He rewarded his Norman and French followers by distributing the confiscated lands of the English to them.
William was a savage and formidable ruler, by modern standards an exceedingly cruel one, but his methods produced the desired results and extinguished the fires of opposition. Many castles and keeps were built across the country to enforce his rule, originally wooden towers or earthen mottes, in all over 80 castles were established during the reign, including the White Tower, the first building in the Tower of London complex. The dominating shadow of the White Tower loomed menacingly over medieval London, a visible expression of Norman power.
The new King's half brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, commissioned a tapestry to commemorate his brother's victory in 1078. It depicts a series of scenes leading up to and during the conquest. William's conversion of the New Forest into a royal hunting ground saw the introduction of harsh and severe forest laws, which caused great resentment amongst the Anglo-Saxons. William changed England's laws and inflicted harsh punishments for offenders. Murder became an officially punishable crime in England and slavery was abolished.
Anglo-Saxon England was radically altered by the Norman conquest, it changed the entire way of life then established in the country. Its laws, aristocracy and church were altered and it introduced the French feudal system. The Anglo-Saxon language was replaced by Norman French as the language of the upper classes, modern English is the natural outgrowth of both. The role of the conquerors and the conquered can still be detected in many English words, the Saxon cow, tended by the lowly Saxon villein became the Norman beef when it appeared on the lord's table. The Saxon swine became Norman gammon. There are countless other examples in modern English which amply illlustrate the role of Saxon servant and Norman master.
The Norman Feudal System, which William introduced into England, was a complicated heirarchial structure at whose apex sat the king. That lords held their lands under the king in exchange for homage and military assistance rendered to him in times of need.
The Domesday Book In December, 1085, William decided to commision an enquiry into the extent of his dominions to maximise taxation. This unique survey was known to history as the Domesday Book. The Domesday Book still survives today in the Public Record Office, London and is an extraordinary document for its time.
The Death of William I The last year of William's life was spent fighting in Normandy, in battle for the Vexin, a much disputed territory, which lay between Normandy and France. Amongst those opposing him was his rebellious eldest son, Robert, nicknamed Curthose by his father, due to his short legs.
On 9th September, 1087, whilst riding through the smouldering ruins of the sacked town of Mantes, in what must have appeared to him as like an act of divine retribution, William was thrown from his horse when it trod on burning ashes and sustained severe abdominal injuries.
The King, now aged fifty nine and mortally injured, was carried to the convent of St. Gervais in Rouen, the Norman capital. There he summoned his younger sons, William and Henry, to his deathbed. Robert Curthose remained at the court of France.
England was bequeathed to his second surviving and favourite son, William Rufus and despite his bitter differences with Robert Curthose, he left Normandy to him. To Henry, the youngest son, later destined to inherit all his dominions, he left 5,000 silver pounds. He is reported to have ruminated on and repented of his many sins, transgressions and cruelties at the end. He tried to salve his conscience, before preparing to meet his maker and fearing for his immortal soul, he ordered all the treasure he possessed in Rouen to be given to the church and the poor and forgave his enemies. William the Conqueror died on 9th September, 1087, having ruled England for 21 years.
William was buried in the monastery of St.Stephen at Caen in Normandy, an abbey he had previously founded as an act of repentence for his consanguineous marriage to Matilda of Flanders. The body was broken as it was lowered into the sepulchre, made too short by the stonemasons and the ceremony was interrupted by a dispossessed knight. A stone slab with a Latin inscription, in the abbey church of Caen today marks the burial place of the first Norman King of England. His grave has since been desecrated twice, in the course of the French Wars of Religion his bones were scattered across Caen, and during the tumultuous events of the French Revolution, the Conqueror's tomb was again despoiled.
Roi d'Angleterre (William I)
Duc de Normandie
William I 'the Conqueror', King of England was born between 1027 and 1028 at Falise Castle, Falaise, Normandy, France, illegitimately.2,3 He was the son of Robert I, 6th Duc de Normandie and Herleva de Falaise. He married Matilda de Flandre, daughter of Baldwin V de Lille, Comte de Flandre and Adela de France, Princesse de France, in 1053 at Cathedral of Notre Dame d'Eu, Normandy, France.3 He died on 9 September 1087 at Priory of St. Gervais, Rouen, Caux, France, from wounds received while fighting.4 He was buried at St. Stephen Abbey, Caen, Normandy, France.4
William I 'the Conqueror', King of England also went by the nick-name of William 'the Conqueror'.5 William I 'the Conqueror', King of England also went by the nick-name of William 'le Batard' (or in English, the Bastard).5 In 1035 on his father's death, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15.6 He succeeded to the title of 7th Duc de Normandie on 22 June 1035.3 He gained the title of Comte de Maine in 1063.3 He fought in the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 at Hastings, Sussex, England.3 He gained the title of King William I of England on 25 December 1066.7 He was crowned King of England on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, England, and styled 'Willielmus Rex Anglorum.7' He fought in the Siege of Mantes in September 1087.4
From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer). William's military successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne (he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper. Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000 cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September, Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish his exhausted veterans as he marched.
At the Battle of Senlac (near Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number (they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry, both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English forces fled. In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it, remain.
Three months after his coronation, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest, and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land.
In 1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York. Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships threatened the east coast (in alliance with various English, including Hereward the Wake) until a treaty of peace was concluded in June 1070.
Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm III was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and moved land and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy in 1072 marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being accepted as a hostage. William consolidated his conquest by starting a castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area) surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order.
William's wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created up to 180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military arrangement which had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing class.
The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump (caused by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern England for military and political reasons), prompted William to order a full-scale investigation into the actual and potential wealth of the kingdom to maximise tax revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by ignorance of the state of land holding in England, as well as the result of the costs of defence measures in England and renewed war in France. The scope, speed, efficiency and completion of this survey was remarkable for its time and resulted in the two-volume Domesday Book of 1086, which still exists today. William needed to ensure the direct loyalty of his feudal tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was a gathering of William's 170 tenants-in-chief and other important landowners who took an oath of fealty to William. William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the legal system. French superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally devout, William used his bishops to carry out administrative duties. Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, was a first-class administrator who assisted in government when William was absent in France, and who reorganised the Church in England. Having established the primacy of his archbishopric over that of York, and with William's approval, Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Church or spiritual courts to deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also replaced English bishops and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by the Council of Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy to reduce potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durham Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban centres.
At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and customs. The Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which administered defence and tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact, as did regional variations and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to a continuing complex legal framework. More severe forest laws reinforced William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve. These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will ... Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is not to be forgotten.'
William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy, fighting a counter-offensive in the French Vexin territory against King Philip's annexation of outlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9 September 1087, William divided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons. (The scene was set for centuries of expensive commitments by successive English monarchs to defend their inherited territories in France.) William bequeathed Normandy as he had promised to his eldest son Robert, despite their bitter differences (Robert had sided with his father's enemies in Normandy, and even wounded and defeated his father in a battle there in 1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succeed William as King of England, and the third remaining son, Henry, was left 5,000 pounds in silver.8 He has an extensive biographical entry in the Dictionary of National Biography.9
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England
William I (circa 1028[1] – 9 September 1087), also known as William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant), was the first Norman King of England from Christmas 1066 until his death. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II. Before his conquest of England, he was known as William the Bastard because of the illegitimacy of his birth.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England
William was born in either 1027 or 1028 in Château de Falaise in Falaise, Normandy, France, and more likely in the autumn of the later year.[1][notes 1] William was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, as well as the grandnephew of the English Queen, Emma of Normandy, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and then of King Canute the Great.[3] Though illegitimate, his father named him as heir to Normandy. His mother, Herleva, who later married and bore two sons to Herluin de Conteville, was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise. In addition to his two half-brothers, Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, William also had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy, another child of Robert.
William's illegitimacy affected his early life. As a child, his life was in constant danger from his kinsmen who thought they had a more legitimate right to rule. One attempt on William's life occurred while he slept at a castle keep at Vaudreuil, when the murderer mistakenly stabbed the child sleeping next to William.[4] Nevertheless, when his father died, he was recognized as the heir.[5] Later in his life, his enemies are reported to have called him "William the Bastard", and derided him as the son of a tanner's daughter, and the residents of besieged Alençon hung animal skins from the city walls to taunt him.
King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy
William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy
William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy married Maud, daughter of Ingelric, DID NOT MARRY. William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy was born on 14 October 1024 at Falaise, Normandy, France. He married Matilda of Flanders, daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders and Adela of France, in 1053 at Eu, France. William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy died on 9 September 1087 at Priory St. Gervais, Rouen, France, at age 62.
'Also knowen as William the Conqueror
Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England, defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty. As King, William was noted for his efficient if harsh rule. His administration relied upon Norman and other foreign personnell especially Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1085 started Domesday Book
Duke of Normandy, King of England, 1066-1087, Nickname: William the Conqueror- -The Oxford History of Britain- by Kenneth Morgan, 1984, pp.101-144. -The Kings and Queens of England- by Nicholas Best, 1995, p.9. -Western Europe in the Middle Ages,300-1475-by Tierney, 1978,pp.178-183. Born: 1027 Died: September 9, 1087 Parents: Robert I, Duke of Normandy and Herleva of Falasia Significant Siblings: none Spouse: Mathilda (daughter of Count Baldwin of Flanders) Significant Offspring: Robert, William Rufus, Henry, and Adela Contemporaries: Edward the Confessor (King of England, 1047-1066); Harold Godwinson (King of England, 1066); Henry I (King of France, 1031-1060); Philip I (King of France, 1060-1108); Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085); Lanfranc (Archbishop of Canterbury)
-France in the Middle Ages,987-1460- by George Duby,1987, chart 6. -Royal Ancestors- by Michel Call, 1989, Chart # 11420.
Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feaudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty. As King William was noted for his efficient if harsh rule. His administration relied upon Norman and other foreign personnell especially Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1085 started Domesday Book.
William, the illegitimate son of the Duke of Normandy, spent his first six years with his mother in Falaise and received the duchy of Normandy upon his father's death in 1035. A council consisting of noblemen and William's appointed guardians ruled Normandy but ducal authority waned under the Normans' violent nature and the province was wracked with assassination and revolt for twelve years. In 1047, William reasserted himself in the eastern Norman regions and, with the aid of France's King Henry I, crushed the rebelling barons. He spent the next several years consolidating his strength on the continent through marriage, diplomacy, war and savage intimidation. By 1066, Normandy was in a position of virtual independence from William's feudal lord, Henry I of France and the disputed succession in England offered William an opportunity for invasion.
Edward the Confessor attempted to gain Norman support while fighting with his father-in-law, Earl Godwin, by purportedly promising the throne to William in 1051. (This was either a false claim by William or a hollow promise from Edward; at that time, the kingship was not necessarily hereditary but was appointed by the witan, a council of clergy and barons.) Before his death in 1066, however, Edward reconciled with Godwin, and the witan agreed to Godwin's son, Harold, as heir to the crown - after the recent Danish kings, the members of the council were anxious to keep the monarchy in Anglo-Saxon hands. William was enraged and immediately prepared to invade, insisting that Harold had sworn allegiance to him in 1064. Prepared for battle in August 1066, ill winds throughout August and most of September prohibited him crossing the English Channel. This turned out to be advantageous for William, however, as Harold Godwinson awaited William's pending arrival on England's south shores, Harold Hardrada, the King of Norway, invaded England from the north. Harold Godwinson's forces marched north to defeat the Norse at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Two days after the battle, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and spent the next two weeks pillaging the area and strengthening his position on the beachhead. The victorious Harold, in an attempt to solidify his kingship, took the fight south to William and the Normans on October 14, 1066 at Hastings. After hours of holding firm against the Normans, the tired English forces finally succumbed to the onslaught. Harold and his brothers died fighting in the Hastings battle, removing any further organized Anglo-Saxon resistance to the Normans. The earls and bishops of the witan hesitated in supporting William, but soon submitted and crowned him William I on Christmas Day 1066. The kingdom was immediately besieged by minor uprisings, each one individually and ruthlessly crushed by the Normans, until the whole of England was conquered and united in 1072. William punished rebels by confiscating their lands and allocating them to the Normans. Uprisings in the northern counties near York were quelled by an artificial famine brought about by Norman destruction of food caches and farming implements.
The arrival and conquest of William and the Normans radically altered the course of English history. Rather than attempt a wholesale replacement of Anglo-Saxon law, William fused continental practices with native custom. By disenfranchising Anglo-Saxon landowners, he instituted a brand of feudalism in England that strengthened the monarchy. Villages and manors were given a large degree of autonomy in local affairs in return for military service and monetary payments. The Anglo-Saxon office of sheriff was greatly enhanced: sheriffs arbitrated legal cases in the shire courts on behalf of the king, extracted tax payments and were generally responsible for keeping the peace. ...The Domesday Book... was commissioned in 1085 as a survey of land ownership to assess property and establish a tax base. Within the regions covered by the Domesday survey, the dominance of the Norman king and his nobility are revealed: only two Anglo-Saxon barons that held lands before 1066 retained those lands twenty years later. All landowners were summoned to pay homage to William in 1086. William imported an Italian, Lanfranc, to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury; Lanfranc reorganized the English Church, establishing separate Church courts to deal with infractions of Canon law. Although he began the invasion with papal support, William refused to let the church dictate policy within English and Norman borders.
He died as he had lived: an inveterate warrior. He died September 9, 1087 from complications of a wound he received in a siege on the town of Mantes.
...The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle... gave a favorable review of William's twenty-one year reign, but added, ...His anxiety for money is the only thing on which he can deservedly be blamed; . . .he would say and do some things and indeed almost anything . . .where the hope of money allured him.... He was certainly cruel by modern standards, and exacted a high toll from his subjects, but he laid the foundation for the economic and political success of England.
William, the illegitimate son of the Duke of Normandy, spent his first six years with his mother in Falaise and received the duchy of Normandy upon his father's death in 1035. A council consisting of noblemen and William's appointed guardians ruled Normandy but ducal authority waned under the Normans' violent nature and the province was wracked with assassination and revolt for twelve years. In 1047, William reasserted himself in the eastern Norman regions and, with the aid of France's King Henry I, crushed the rebelling barons. He spent the next several years consolidating his strength on the continent through marriage, diplomacy, war and savage intimidation. By 1066, Normandy was in a position of virtual independence from William's feudal lord, Henry I of France and the disputed succession in England offered William an opportunity for invasion.
Edward the Confessor attempted to gain Norman support while fighting with his father-in-law, Earl Godwin, by purportedly promising the throne to William in 1051. (This was either a false claim by William or a hollow promise from Edward; at that time, the kingship was not necessarily hereditary but was appointed by the witan, a council of clergy and barons.) Before his death in 1066, however, Edward reconciled with Godwin, and the witan agreed to Godwin's son, Harold, as heir to the crown - after the recent Danish kings, the members of the council were anxious to keep the monarchy in Anglo-Saxon hands. William was enraged and immediately prepared to invade, insisting that Harold had sworn allegiance to him in 1064. Prepared for battle in August 1066, ill winds throughout August and most of September prohibited him crossing the English Channel. This turned out to be advantageous for William, however, as Harold Godwinson awaited William's pending arrival on England's south shores, Harold Hardrada, the King of Norway, invaded England from the north. Harold Godwinson's forces marched north to defeat the Norse at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Two days after the battle, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and spent the next two weeks pillaging the area and strengthening his position on the beachhead. The victorious Harold, in an attempt to solidify his kingship, took the fight south to William and the Normans on October 14, 1066 at Hastings. After hours of holding firm against the Normans, the tired English forces finally succumbed to the onslaught. Harold and his brothers died fighting in the Hastings battle, removing any further organized Anglo-Saxon resistance to the Normans. The earls and bishops of the witan hesitated in supporting William, but soon submitted and crowned him William I on Christmas Day 1066. The kingdom was immediately besieged by minor uprisings, each one individually and ruthlessly crushed by the Normans, until the whole of England was conquered and united in 1072. William punished rebels by confiscating their lands and allocating them to the Normans. Uprisings in the northern counties near York were quelled by an artificial famine brought about by Norman destruction of food caches and farming implements.
The arrival and conquest of William and the Normans radically altered the course of English history. Rather than attempt a wholesale replacement of Anglo-Saxon law, William fused continental practices with native custom. By disenfranchising Anglo-Saxon landowners, he instituted a brand of feudalism in England that strengthened the monarchy. Villages and manors were given a large degree of autonomy in local affairs in return for military service and monetary payments. The Anglo-Saxon office of sheriff was greatly enhanced: sheriffs arbitrated legal cases in the shire courts on behalf of the king, extracted tax payments and were generally responsible for keeping the peace. ...The Domesday Book... was commissioned in 1085 as a survey of land ownership to assess property and establish a tax base. Within the regions covered by the Domesday survey, the dominance of the Norman king and his nobility are revealed: only two Anglo-Saxon barons that held lands before 1066 retained those lands twenty years later. All landowners were summoned to pay homage to William in 1086. William imported an Italian, Lanfranc, to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury; Lanfranc reorganized the English Church, establishing separate Church courts to deal with infractions of Canon law. Although he began the invasion with papal support, William refused to let the church dictate policy within English and Norman borders.
He died as he had lived: an inveterate warrior. He died September 9, 1087 from complications of a wound he received in a siege on the town of Mantes.
William I (1028 c. – 10/9/1087) AKA William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard First Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. The descendant of Viking raiders, he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035 under the style William II. After a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son.
William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Robert's mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, as did the anarchy that plagued the first years of his rule. During his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy, a process that was not complete until about 1060. His marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church. His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine.
In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by his childless cousin Edward the Confessor. There were other potential claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson, who was named the next king by Edward on the latter's deathbed in January 1066. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, and that Harold had sworn to support William's claim. William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066, in London. He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 William's hold on England was mostly secure, allowing him to spend the majority of the rest of his reign on the Continent.
William's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France, and was buried in Caen. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, but instead continued to administer each part separately. William's lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert, and his second surviving son, William, received England.
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Agregado por: Ing. Carlos Juan Felipe Urdaneta Alamo, MD.IG.
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CONTEXTO HISTORICO
✺- 1028→Romano III es proclamado emperador tras la muerte de Constantino VIII.
En Noruega, Canuto II de Dinamarca conquista el reino.
Desde Armenia, los turcomanos entran al país de Azerbaiyán hasta la orilla occidental del mar Caspio.
Nacimientos
Roberto de Molesmé, religioso y santo francés.
Fallecimientos
15 de diciembre: Constantino VIII, emperador bizantino.
Alfonso V, rey leonés.
García Sánchez, conde de Castilla.
Jairán, primer rey de la taifa de Almería.
✺- 1038→9 de enero: en Shaanxi (China) sucede un terremoto que deja más de 32.000 víctimas.
En España, Ermengol III, hereda el Condado de Urgel.
Nacimientos
Sancho II de Castilla, rey de León y rey de Castilla. Hijo de Fernando I de León
Fallecimientos
Ermengol II, conde español.
Esteban I, rey y santo católico húngaro.
✺- 1048→1048 (MXLVIII) fue un año bisiesto comenzado en viernes del calendario juliano.
Acontecimientos
Fundación de la ciudad de Oslo.
Dámaso II sucede a Benedicto IX como papa.
Nacimientos
25 de mayo: Shenzong, sexto emperador de la dinastía Song de China.
18 de mayo: Omar Jayyam, escritor iraní.
Alejo I Comneno: emperador bizantino.
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar: El Cid Campeador
Fallecimientos
9 de agosto: Dámaso II, papa.
13 de diciembre: Al-Biruni (75 años), astrónomo, farmacéutico, físico, filósofo, historiador, matemático y viajero uzbeko.
✺- 1058→En Roma (Italia), Nicolás II sucede a Esteban IX como papa.
2 de diciembre: en Mosul (Irak) se registra un terremoto con una intensidad de 9 grados en la escala sismológica de Richter, que deja un saldo desconocido de muertos y heridos.
Nacimientos
Bohemundo de Tarento, príncipe normando.
Fallecimientos
28 de noviembre: Casimiro I el Restaurador, rey polaco.
Ibn Gabirol, filósofo y poeta judío.
✺- 1068→18 de marzo y 29 de mayo: Dos grandes terremotos sacuden Oriente Próximo dejando un saldo de 20.000 muertos.
22 de mayo: Comienza el reinado del Emperador Go-Sanjō de Japón.
Guerra de los tres Sanchos en Castilla.
Sitio de Exeter: El rey Guillermo el Conquistador marchó con un ejército combinado Anglo-Normandos desde el oeste a limpiar los focos de resistencia Sajona.
Nacimientos
Enrique I, rey de Inglaterra.
Pedro I, rey de Aragón.
Fallecimientos
22 de mayo: Emperador Go-Reizei de Japón. (n.1025)
Argiro, comandante bizantino de origen lombardo.
Ramón Wifredo, conde de Cerdaña.
Enlaces externos
Wikimedia Commons alberga una categoría multimedia sobre 1068.
✺- 1078→Al-Muqtádir de Zaragoza se anexiona la Taifa de Lérida haciendo prisionero a su hermano Yúsuf de Lérida.
Vsévolod I de Kiev comenzó a gobernar como Gran Príncipe de Kiev.
V Concilio romano presidido por Gregorio VII.
Nacimientos
Ermengol V, conde de Urgel.
Fallecimientos
6 de junio - Inés de Aquitania, reina consorte de Castilla y León. Esposa de Alfonso VI de León.
Ponce I de Ampurias, conde de Ampurias.
✺- →1088 (MLXXXVIII) fue un año bisiesto comenzado en sábado del calendario juliano.
Acontecimientos
12 de marzo: Urbano II sucede a Víctor III como papa.
16 de abril: Un terremoto de 6,5 sacude el sur de Georgia dejando varios muertos.
Primavera y verano, Odón de Bayeux lidera una rebelión contra Guillermo II de Inglaterra, conocida como Rebelión de 1088
Raimundo de Borgoña es designado conde de Galicia.
Yves de Chartres es consagrado obispo por el papa en Roma.
Fundación de la Universidad de Bolonia.
Nacimientos
Piroska de Hungría, esposa de Juan II Comneno, emperador romano.
Fallecimientos
6 de enero: Berengario de Tours, teólogo francés.
11 de marzo: Bertholdo de Reichenau, cronista alemán.
7 de abril: Burcardo II de Halberstadt, obispo de Halberstadt.
15 de junio: Gerardo de Helfenstein, arzobispo de Salzburgo y Seliger.
3 de julio: Robert de Rhuddlan, aventurero normando.
28 de septiembre: Hermann de Salm, antirrey de romanos.
Nasir ibn Alnas, emir hammadí.
Naser Josrow, teólogo persa.
Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, poeta sufí persa
Guillermo de Warenne, I conde de Surrey.
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Agregado por: Ing. Carlos Juan Felipe Urdaneta Alamo, MD.IG.
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