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William "the Conqueror" FitzRobert, Duke of Normandy, King of England MP
French: Roi d'Angleterre Guillaume FitzRobert, le Conquérant
Gender: Male
Birth: October 14, 1024
Château de Base-, Falaise, Calvados, Normandie, France
Death: September 09, 1087 (62)
Prieuré de Saint-Gervais, Rouen, Seine-Maritime, Haute-Normandie, France (Wounds suffered at the siege of Mantes)
Place of Burial: Abbatiale Saint-Étienne, Abbaye aux Hommes, Caen, Calvados, Basse-Normandie, France
Immediate Family:
Son of Robert I "the Magnificent", Duke of Normandy and Herleva of Falaise
Husband of Matilda of Flanders
Father of Robert II "Curthose", Duke of Normandy; Adelizia de Normandie, Princess of England; William II "Rufus", King of England; Cecilia, Abbess of Holy Trinity; Richard and 5 others
Brother of Adelaide of Normandy, Countess Of Aumale
Half brother of Robert de Mortagne, Earl of Cornwall; Odo, Bishop of Bayeux; Jeanne de Conteville; Muriel de Conteville; Rohesia deConteville and 2 others
Added by: Roger Stephen Douthitt on February 27, 2007
Managed by: Daniel Dupree Walton and 997 others
Curated by: Jf Antoine
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Guillaume 'le Conquérant' FitzRobert, Duc de Normandie, Roi d'Angleterre, in English: William the Conqueror, King of England
Parents
Robert 'le Diable', Duc de Normandie & his mistress Herlève de Falaise
Spouse
Matilde (Maud) de Flandre
Children
Robert Curthose (1054–1134), Duke of Normandy, married Sybil of Conversano, daughter of Geoffrey of Conversano.
Richard (c. 1055 – c. 1081), Duke of Bernay, killed by a stag in New Forest.
Adeliza (or Alice) (c. 1055 – c. 1065), reportedly betrothed to Harold II of England.
Cecilia (or Cecily) (c. 1056 – 1126), Abbess of Holy Trinity, Caen.
William "Rufus" (c. 1056 – 1100), King of England.
Agatha (c. 1064 – 1079), betrothed to Alfonso VI of Castile.
Constance (c. 1066 – 1090), married Alan IV Fergent, Duke of Brittany; poisoned, possibly by her own servants.
Adela (c. 1067 – 1137), married Stephen, Count of Blois.
Henry "Beauclerc" (1068–1135), King of England, married Edith of Scotland, daughter of Malcolm III, King of the Scots. His second wife was Adeliza of Leuven.
(Matilda)
Despite rumours to the contrary (such as claims that William Peverel was a bastard of William)[21] there is no evidence that he had any illegitimate children.[22]
Links and Resources
http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/NORMANDY.htm#GuillaumeIIdied1087B http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/ENGLAND,%20Kings%201066-1603.htm#WilliamIdied1087
Medieval Lands
GUILLAUME de Normandie, illegitimate son of ROBERT II “le Diable” Duke of Normandy & his mistress Herlève --- (Château de Falaise, Normandy [1027/28]-Rouen, Prioré de Saint-Gervais 9 Sep 1087, bur Caen, Abbé de Saint-Etienne).
His birth date is estimated from William of Malmesbury, according to whom Guillaume was born of a concubine and was seven years old when his father left for Jerusalem[237], and Orderic Vitalis, who states that he was eight years old at the time[238].
According to Orderic Vitalis, Alain III Duke of Brittany was appointed his guardian during his father's absence in 1035[239]. Deville suggests that Guillaume´s birthdate can be fixed more precisely to [mid-1027], taking into account that his father Robert occupied Falaise immediately after the death of his father Duke Richard II (23 Aug 1026), not wishing to accept the authority of his older brother Duke Richard III, but that Robert´s stay was short as the two brothers were reconciled soon after, it being reasonable to suppose that Robert´s relationship with Guillaume´s mother occurred soon after his arrival at Falaise[240].
He succeeded his father in 1035 as GUILLAUME II Duke of Normandy. After Duke Alan was poisoned, Gilbert Comte d'Eu was appointed guardian but was himself murdered[241]. Duke Guillaume helped Henri I King of France defeat Geoffroy II "Martel" Comte d'Anjou at Mouliherne in [1045/55][242]. Edward "the Confessor" King of England may have acknowledged Guillaume's right to succeed to the English throne on several occasions, maybe for the first time during a visit to England in 1051 which is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[243]. Comte de Maine 1063, after he conquered the county. In [1064/65], Duke Guillaume interceded with Guy de Ponthieu Comte d'Abbeville to secure the release of Harold Godwinsson, in return for Harold's acknowledgement of Guillaume as successor to the English throne according to the portrayal of the event in the Bayeux tapestry. Harold Godwinsson's visit to Normandy, and swearing allegiance to Duke William, is recorded by William of Jumièges[244]. According to Eadmer of Canterbury, the reason for Harold's visit was to negotiate the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Haakon, both of whom had been hostages in Normandy since 1051.
On his deathbed King Edward "the Confessor" bequeathed the kingdom of England to Harold Godwinsson. Duke Guillaume branded Harold a perjurer and appealed to Pope Alexander II for support. After receiving a papal banner in response to this request, William gathered a sizable army during summer 1066 ready for invasion. After some delay due to unfavourable weather conditions, the army set sail for England from Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme 28 Sep 1066[245]. He defeated and killed King Harold at Hastings 14 Oct 1066, and made his way to London where he was crowned 25 Dec 1066 as WILLIAM I "the Conqueror" King of England.
http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/NORMANDY.htm#GuillaumeIIdied1087B
GUILLAUME de Normandie, illegitimate son of ROBERT II Duke of Normandy & his mistress Arlette --- (Château de Falaise, Normandy [1027/28]-Rouen, Prioré de Saint-Gervais 9 Sep 1087, bur Caen, Abbé de Saint-Etienne).
His birth date is estimated from William of Malmesbury, according to whom Guillaume was born of a concubine and was seven years old when his father left for Jerusalem[1], and Orderic Vitalis, who states that he was eight years old at the time[2]. Deville suggests that Guillaume´s birthdate can be fixed more precisely to [mid-1027], taking into account that his father Robert occupied Falaise immediately after the death of his father Duke Richard II (23 Aug 1026), not wishing to accept the authority of his older brother Duke Richard III, but that Robert´s stay was short as the two brothers were reconciled soon after, it being reasonable to suppose that Robert´s relationship with Guillaume´s mother occurred soon after his arrival at Falaise[3]. According to Orderic Vitalis, Alain III Duke of Brittany was appointed his guardian during his father's absence in 1035[4].
He succeeded his father in 1035 as GUILLAUME II Duke of Normandy. He helped Henri I King of France defeat Geoffroy II "Martel" Comte d'Anjou at Mouliherne in [1045/55][5]. It appears that Edward "the Confessor" King of England acknowledged Guillaume as successor to the English throne on several occasions, maybe for the first time during his visit to England in 1051 which is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle[6]. Comte de Maine in 1063, after he conquered the county. In [1064/65], Duke Guillaume interceded with Guy de Ponthieu Comte d'Abbeville to secure the release of Harold Godwinsson from captivity in Normandy, in return for Harold's acknowledgement of Guillaume as successor to the English crown (according to the portrayal of the event in the Bayeux tapestry). Harold Godwinsson's visit to Normandy, and swearing allegiance to Duke William, is recorded by William of Jumièges[7].
According to Eadmer of Canterbury, the reason for his visit was to negotiate the release of his brother Wulfnoth and nephew Haakon, both of whom had been hostages in Normandy since 1051. On his deathbed, King Edward "the Confessor" bequeathed the kingdom of England to Harold Godwinsson. Duke Guillaume branded Harold a perjurer and appealed to Pope Alexander II for support. After receiving a papal banner in response to his request, William gathered a sizable army during summer 1066 in preparation for invasion. After some delay due to unfavourable weather conditions, the army set sail for England from Saint-Valéry-sur-Somme 28 Sep 1066[8]. William defeated and killed King Harold at Hastings 14 Oct 1066[9], marched north to Canterbury, then west to Winchester where he captured the royal treasury. He proceeded to London where he was crowned 25 Dec 1066 as WILLIAM I "the Conqueror" King of England at Westminster Abbey, possibly by Ealdred Archbishop of York who may have officiated because of doubts concerning the validity of the appointment of Stigand as Archbishop of Canterbury. The latter had received his pallium in 1058 from Pope Benedict X, later regarded as anti-Pope, an appointment which had not been regularised by Pope Alexander II. He was crowned again at Winchester 1070 with a Papal crown. After taking several years to subdue the whole country, he imposed the Norman feudal structure and rule everywhere with methodical and harsh persistence. The minute description of the country contained in the Domesday Book, completed in 1086, enabled King William to create an effective tax base He died from wounds received at the siege of Mantes, having been injured internally after being thrown against the pommel of his saddle[10], leaving Normandy to his eldest son Robert and England to his second surviving son William. Guillaume de Jumièges records the death of King William at Rouen on 9 Sep and his burial at Saint-Etienne, Caen[11]. Florence of Worcester records the death "Id Sep V" of King William and his burial "Cadomi in ecclesia S Stephani Protomartyris"[12]. The Brevis Relatio de Origine Willelmi Conquestoris records that "Willelmus…Roberti filius" was buried "Cadomi in ecclesia beati Stephani" which he had built[13].
m (Eu, Cathedral of Notre Dame [1050/52]) MATHILDE de Flandre, daughter of BAUDOUIN V "le Pieux/Insulanus" Count of Flanders & his wife Adela de France ([1032]-Caen 2 Nov 1083, bur Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity).
The Genealogica Comitum Flandriæ Bertiniana names (in order) "Balduinum Haanoniensem, et Robdbertum cognomento postea Iherosolimitanum, et Matilde uxorem Guillelmi regis Anglorum" as the children of "Balduinum Insulanum [et] Adelam"[14]. Her parentage is also stated by Orderic Vitalis[15]. She founded the abbey of la Trinité at Caen, as confirmed by an undated manuscript which records the death "pridie nonas julias" of "abbatissam Mathildem" in the 54th year in which she held the position and names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[16]. Florence of Worcester records that "comitissa Mahtilda de Normannia" came to England 23 Mar [1068] and was crowned "die Pentecostes [11 May]" by Aldred Archbishop of York[17].
Orderic Vitalis also records that she was crowned Queen of England 11 May 1068[18], presumably at Westminster Abbey or Winchester Cathedral although this appears to be unrecorded. Queen Matilda acted as regent in Normandy during her husband's absences in England. The necrology of the abbey of Saint-Denis records the death "IV Non Nov" of "Matildis Anglorum regina"[19]. Guillaume de Jumièges records the burial of Queen Mathilde on 3 Nov 1081 at Holy Trinity, Caen[20]. Florence of Worcester records the death "IV Non Nov" in [1083] of "regina Mahtilda" in Normandy and her burial at Caen[21].
King William I & his wife had ten children:
1. ROBERT de Normandie (Normandy [1052/54]-Cardiff Castle [3] Feb 1134, bur Gloucester Cathedral[22]). William of Malmesbury names Robert as eldest son of King William I[23]. "Roberti filii sui Normannorum comitis, Richardi filii sui…" subscribed the charter dated Apr 1067 under which "Willelmus…dux Normannorum…Anglorum rex" confirmed rights to the abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire[24]. Orderic Vitalis records that, after unsuccessfully aspiring to govern Normandy and Maine during the lifetime of his father, Robert rebelled in 1079 and went into exile in Flanders[25]. William of Malmesbury and Orderic Vitalis both state that he was assisted in his rebellion by Philippe I King of France and that he wounded his father in battle at Gerberoy[26]. He succeeded his father in 1087 as ROBERT “Curthose” Duke of Normandy, his nickname due, according to William of Malmesbury and Orderic Vitalis, to his short stature which he presumably inherited from his mother who was also reputed to have been very short[27]. He joined the contingent of Robert II Count of Flanders on the First Crusade in Sep 1096, together with Etienne Comte de Blois, after pledging the duchy of Normandy to his brother King William for 10,000 marks of silver in order to fund the expedition[28]. Following the capture of Jerusalem, Robert left Palestine to return to Europe in Sep 1099[29]. On returning to Normandy in Autumn 1100, he recovered his duchy without opposition[30]. He landed at Portsmouth in 1102 aiming to displace his brother King Henry I as king of England, but was persuaded to return to Normandy on payment of 3,000 marks[31]. His brother King Henry invaded Normandy and defeated Robert at the battle of Tinchebrai[32], declaring himself duke of Normandy 28 Sep 1106. King Henry took Robert in captivity back to England, where Robert remained in prison for the rest of his life. Robert of Torigny records the death in 1134 of "Robertus dux Normannorum filius Willermi regis…primogenitus" and his burial at Gloucester[33]. The Continuator of Florence of Worcester records the death at Cardiff in [1134] of "Rotbertus frater regis Heinrici quondam comes Normanniæ" and his burial in Gloucester[34].
- DUKES of NORMANDY.
2. RICHARD de Normandie (Normandy [1054 or 1056]-1075 or 1081, bur Winchester Cathedral). William of Malmesbury records that he was the second son of King William I[35]. "The next-born after Robert" according to Orderic Vitalis[36] who, from the context of this passage appears to be taking into account daughters as well as sons in his list of the king's children although, critically for deciding the birth order of the older children, he omits Cecilia in this section. "Roberti filii sui Normannorum comitis, Richardi filii sui…" subscribed the charter dated Apr 1067 under which "Willelmus…dux Normannorum…Anglorum rex" confirmed rights to the abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire[37]. Duc de Bernay, in Normandy. According to William of Malmesbury, he "contracted a disorder from a stream of foul air while hunting deer in the New Forest"[38]. Florence of Worcester records that "Willelmi iunioris germanus Ricardus" was killed in the New Forest long before, when recording the death of his brother King William II[39]. Orderic Vitalis recounts that "when a youth who had not yet received the belt of knighthood, had gone hunting in the New Forest and whilst he was galloping in pursuit of a wild beast he had been badly crushed between a strong hazel branch and the pommel of his saddle, and mortally injured" dying soon after[40]. Guillaume de Jumièges records a similar, but less specific, story, saying that Richard was hunting, knocked himself against a tree, fell ill and died from his injury[41].
3. ADELAIDE [Adelisa] de Normandie ([1055]-7 Dec, 1066 or after). Orderic Vitalis records the betrothal of Adelaide and Harold Godwinson, listing her after Agatha and before Constance in his description of the careers of the daughters of King William[42]. The sources are contradictory concerning the name of the daughter betrothed to Harold Godwinson, as well as the timing of her death. The only near certainty is that it would presumably have been the oldest available daughter who was betrothed to Harold. Matthew of Paris does not name her but lists her fourth among the daughters of King William, while distinguishing her from the fifth daughter betrothed to "Aldefonso Galiciæ regi"[43]. Guillaume de Jumièges records that Duke Guillaume betrothed his daughter Adelise to Harold, in a later passage (in which he does not repeat her name) stating that she was the third daughter and that she died a virgin although she was of an age to marry[44]. Chibnall specifies[45] that this reference is contained in the interpolations written by Orderic Vitalis, the latter chronicler therefore contradicting his statement in his own work that Agatha was the name of the daughter who was betrothed to King Harold. Orderic Vitalis says that Adelaide "a most fair maiden vowed herself to God when she reached marriageable age and made a pious end under the protection of Roger of Beaumont"[46]. The daughter betrothed to Harold was alive in early 1066, according to Eadmer of Canterbury[47] who says that Duke Guillaume requested King Harold, soon after his accession, to keep his promise to marry his daughter. This is contradicted by William of Malmesbury[48], who says that her death before that of Edward "the Confessor" was taken by King Harold II as marking absolution from his oath to Duke Guillaume. She died as a nun at Préaux[49]. A manuscript of la Trinité de Caen names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[50], which, if the order of names is significant, indicates that Adelaide was older than her two named sisters. The necrology of Chartres cathedral records the death "VII Id Dec" of "Adeliza filia regis Anglorum", stating that her father made a donation for her soul[51]. The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death of "Adelina filia regis Anglorum", undated but listed among deaths at the end of the calendar year[52]. Betrothed ([1064/65]) to HAROLD Godwinson Earl of Wessex, son of GODWIN Earl of Wessex & his wife Gytha of Denmark ([1022/25]-killed in battle Hastings 14 Oct 1066, bur [Waltham Abbey]), who succeeded in 1066 as HAROLD II King of England.
4. MATHILDE de Normandie (-26 Apr or 6 Jul [1113]). The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death "VI Kal Mai" of "Mathildis filia Willelmi regis Anglorum"[53]. She is not named as a daughter of King William by either William of Malmesbury or Orderic Vitalis. There is no basis for assessing her order of birth among the other known daughters of the king. An undated manuscript records the death "pridie nonas julias" of "abbatissam Mathildem" in the 54th year in which she held the position[54]. The same source names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[55]. If this is correct, and even assuming that she was appointed abbess as a child, Mathilde must have been one of the oldest of her father´s children, but younger than her sister Adelaide. Delisle dates her death to [1113][56], on the basis of Orderic Vitalis recording that her successor as abbess of la Trinité de Caen, her sister Cecilia, died 13 Jul 1127 after 14 years as abbess[57].
5. CECILIA de Normandie (-Caen 3/13 Jul [1126/27], bur Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity). She is named first in his list of King William's daughters by William of Malmesbury and by Matthew of Paris[58]. Orderic Vitalis, in his list of the king's children which appears to place both the sons and daughters together in birth order[59], unfortunately omits Cecilia, rendering it particularly difficult to decide if she was older or younger than her brother Richard. Guillaume de Jumièges names Cecile as eldest daughter, stating that she was a nun at the convent of Holy Trinity at Caen[60]. A manuscript at Caen names "Mathildem Anglorum reginam, nostri cœnobii fondatricem, Adilidem, Mathildem, Constantiam, filias eius" heading the list of the names of nuns at the abbey[61], which, if the order of names is significant, indicates that Cecilia was younger than her sisters Adelaide and Mathilde. Her parents offered her as an oblate to the nunnery of the Holy Trinity, Caen (founded by her mother) 18 Jun 1066[62], probably in part to obtain divine blessing for her father´s project to invade England. She became a nun there in 1075[63], her tutor being Arnoul de Choques who later became Chancellor to her brother Robert "Curthose" Duke of Normandy, and subsequently Patriarch of Jerusalem[64]. She succeeded her sister Mathilde as abbess of la Trinité de Caen in [1113][65]. The Chronicon S. Stephani Cadomensis records the death in 1126 of "Cecilia Abbatissa, Willelmi Regis filia"[66].
6. GUILLAUME de Normandie ([1056/60]-killed in the New Forest 2 Aug 1100, bur Winchester Cathedral[67]). William of Malmesbury records that he was the third son of King William I[68]. He left his father's deathbed in Normandy in Sep 1087 to rush to England to claim the throne, succeeding as WILLIAM II “Rufus” King of England, crowned at Westminster Abbey 26 Sep 1087. Florence of Worcester records that King William was crowned "VI Kal Oct" of King William at Westminster Abbey[69]. His reign was characterised by bitter rivalry with his brother Robert in Normandy, even harsher imposition of Norman rule in England than by his father, and growing resentment of his ways among the nobility. Florence of Worcester records the death "IV Non Aug" of King William in the New Forest, killed by an arrow shot by "quodam Franco Waltero cognomento Tirello" [châtelain de Poix et de Pontoise], and his burial "Wintoniam in Veteri Monasterio in ecclesia S Petri"[70]. Orderic Vitalis records that he was killed while hunting, maybe murdered, by an arrow shot by Walter Tirel[71]. According to Orderic Vitalis, he "never had a lawful wife but gave himself up insatiably to obscene fornications and repeated adulteries"[72]. The necrology of Saint-Nicaise de Meulan records the death "II Non Aug" of "Guillelmus rex Anglorum filius Guillelmi regis"[73].
7. CONSTANCE de Normandie (Normandy [1057/1061]-13 Aug 1090, bur Church of St Melans near Rhedon). Listed by Orderic Vitalis after Adelaide and before Adela in his description of the careers of the daughters of King William[74]. Named first in his list of the daughters of King William I by Matthew of Paris[75]. Guillaume de Jumièges names Constance as second daughter, naming her husband "Alain Fergant comte de la petite Bretagne et fils d'Hoel, qui avait succédé à Conan" and specifying that she died childless[76]. The Chronicon Ruyensis Cœnobii records the marriage in 1086 of "Alanus" and "Constantiam filiam Regis Anglorum Guillelmi"[77]. The Chronicon Kemperlegiensis records the marriage in 1087 of "Alanus Hoëli Consulis filius" and "Constantiam Guillelmi Regis Anglorum filiam"[78]. The Chronicon Britannico Alter records the marriage in 1088 of "Alanus" and "Constantiam filam Regis Guillelmi Anglorum"[79]. Orderic Vitalis records that she was married in Bayeux[80]. William of Malmesbury lists her as second daughter after Cecilia, adding that "she excited the inhabitants [of Brittany] by the severity of her justice to administer a poisonous potion to her"[81]. Orderic Vitalis, on the other hand, says that she "did everything in her power to further the welfare of her subjects" and "was deeply grieved when she died"[82]. "Alanus dux Britannorum et Constantia uxor eius" donated property to the priory of Livré by charter dated 31 Jul 1089[83]. The Chronicon Britannico Alter records the death in 1090 of "Constantia Alani coniux…sine liberis"[84]. The Chronicon Universum in the cartulary of Sainte-Croix de Quimperlé records the death in 1090 of "Constantia comitissa filia regis Anglorum"[85]. m (Bayeux [1086/88]) as his first wife, ALAIN IV “Fergant” Duke of Brittany, son of HOËL V Comte de Cornouaille, de Léon et de Nantes & his wife Havise heiress of Brittany (-13 Oct 1119).
8. AGATHE de Normandie (-before 1074, bur Bayeux Cathedral). Listed by Orderic Vitalis after Richard and before Adelaide in his description of the careers of the children of King William[86]. According to William of Malmesbury, an unnamed daughter of King William was "affianced by messengers" to King Alfonso[87]. Orderic Vitalis names her Agatha, identifying her as the daughter who had been betrothed to Harold Godwinson (see above), and says that she was betrothed to "Amfursio regi Galliciæ"[88]. Matthew of Paris places her as the fifth daughter (unnamed) betrothed to "Aldefonso Galiciæ regi", but different from the daughter betrothed to Harold[89]. Orderic says that she died en route to Spain, her body being brought back to Bayeux for burial[90]. The betrothal to Alfonso must have been a short-lived arrangement as he married his first wife in 1069[91]. Betrothed (by proxy Caen, Abbey of Holy Trinity [before 1069]) to ALFONSO VI King of Galicia and Leon, son of FERNANDO I King of Castile & his wife Infanta doña Sancha de Léon (Compostela [1037]-Toledo 30 Jun 1109, bur Sahagún, León, San Mancio chapel in the royal monastery of Santos Facundo y Primitivo). He succeeded in 1072 as ALFONSO VI King of Castile. [Betrothed ([after 1069]) to SIMON du Vexin, son of RAOUL III “le Grand” Comte de Valois & his first wife Aélis de Bar-sur-Aube (-[30 Sep/1 Oct] 1080 Rome, bur 1082 Rome St Peter). The Vita Simonis records a ficitional speech of William I King of England in which he offers his (unnamed) daughter's hand to Simon, specifying that she had previously been betrothed to "regis Hispaniarum Anfursi et Roberti principis Apuliæ"[92]. The supposed betrothal to Robert of Apulia (which would have to refer to Robert "Guiscard" Duke of Apulia) is unrecorded in the numerous other sources dealing with his life and is probably pure fantasy. This does not instil confidence with respect to the historical accuracy of the whole passage, but if it is correct the daughter in question would presumably have been Agatha who was probably the daughter of King William betrothed to "Amfursio regi Galliciæ" (see above). Count Simon resigned his county in 1077, became a monk and went on pilgrimage to Rome where he died[93].]
9. ADELA de Normandie (Normandy [1066/67]-Marigney-sur-Loire 8 Mar 1138, bur Abbey of Holy Trinity, Caen). She is listed by Orderic Vitalis last among the daughters of King William in his description of their careers[94]. Named third in his list of the daughters of King William I by Matthew of Paris[95], but this appears unlikely in view of Adela's child-bearing until her husband's death in 1102. Her birth date is estimated bearing in mind that marriage frequently took place in early adolescence at the time, and also because Adela clearly continued to bear children right up to her husband's death. Orderic Vitalis records that she encouraged her husband to join the First Crusade and did not hide her shame when he deserted from Antioch in 1098[96]. Regent of Blois 1102-1107, after the death of her husband. She became a nun at the Cluniac priory of Marigney-sur-Loire in [1122]. The necrology of Chartres cathedral records the death "VIII Id Mar" of "Adela comitissa"[97], and in another manuscript the death "VIII Id Mar" of "Adela nobilis Blesensium comitissa regis Anglorum Willelmi filia"[98]. m (Betrothed Breteuil[99] 1080, Chartres[100] 1081) ETIENNE [Henri] de Blois, son of THIBAUT III Comte de Blois & his [first/second wife Gersende de Maine/Gundrada ---] (-killed in battle Ramleh 19 May 1102). He succeeded his father in 1089 as ETIENNE Comte de Blois, de Chartres, de Châteaudun, de Sancerre et de Meaux.
a) ETIENNE de Blois (Blois [1096/97]-Dover 25 Oct 1154, bur Faversham Abbey, Kent). After the death of his uncle Henry I King of England, he crossed at once to England before his rival, King Henry's daughter Maud, and had himself crowned as STEPHEN King of England at Westminster Abbey 22 Dec 1135.
- other children: COMTES de BLOIS.
10. HENRY of England (Selby, Yorkshire Sep 1068-Saint-Denis le Ferment, Forêt d’Angers near Rouen 1/2 Dec 1135, bur Reading Abbey, Berkshire). Orderic Vitalis records that Henry was born "within a year" of his mother's coronation on 11 May 1068[101]. He succeeded his brother 3 Aug 1100 as HENRY I “Beauclerc” King of England.
Wikipedia
William I (about 1027 or 1028[1] – 9 September 1087), better known as William the Conqueror (French: Guillaume le Conquérant), was Duke of Normandy from 1035 and King of England from late 1066 to his death. William is sometimes also referred to as "William II" in relation to his position as the second Duke of Normandy of that name. In particular, before his conquest of England, he was known as "William the Bastard" (French: Guillaume le Bâtard) because of the illegitimacy of his birth.
Descendants
William is known to have had nine children, though Agatha, a tenth daughter who died a virgin, appears in some sources. Several other unnamed daughters are also mentioned as being betrothed to notable figures of that time. Despite rumours to the contrary (such as claims that William Peverel was a bastard of William)[20] there is no evidence that he had any illegitimate children,[21] (see list above)
To press his claim to the English crown, William invaded England in 1066, leading an army of Normans, Bretons, Flemings, and Frenchmen to victory over the English forces of King Harold Godwinson (who died in the conflict) at the Battle of Hastings, and suppressed subsequent English revolts in what has become known as the Norman Conquest.[2]
His reign, which brought Norman-French culture to England, had an impact on the subsequent course of England in the Middle Ages. The details of that impact and the enormity of the changes have been debated by scholars for over a century. In addition to the obvious change of ruler, his reign also saw a programme of building and fortification, changes to the English language, a shift in the upper levels of society and the church, and adoption of some aspects of continental church reform. More controversial are possible changes in law, royal administration, trade, agriculture, the peasantry, women's roles and rights, and education.
Early life
William was born in Falaise, Normandy, the illegitimate and only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, who named him as heir to Normandy. His mother, Herleva (a name with several variant versions), who later married and bore two sons to Herluin de Conteville, was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise (possibly Fulbert de Tonnerre). In addition to his two half-brothers, Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, William had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy, another child of Robert. Later in his life, the enemies of William are reported to have called him alternately William the Bastard, and deride him as the son of a tanner, and the residents of besieged Alençon hung animal skins from the city walls to taunt him.
William is believed to have been born in either 1027 or 1028, and more likely in the autumn of the later year.[1][notes 1] He was born the grandnephew of Queen Emma of Normandy, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and later, wife of King Canute the Great.[3]
William's illegitimacy affected his early life and he was known to contemporaries as 'William the Bastard'. Nevertheless, when his father died, he was recognised as the heir.[4]
Duke of Normandy
By his father's will, William succeeded him as Duke of Normandy at age seven in 1035. Plots by rival Norman noblemen to usurp his place cost William three guardians, though not Count Alan III of Brittany, who was a later guardian. William was supported by King Henry I of France, however. He was knighted by Henry at age 15. By the time William turned 19 he was successfully dealing with threats of rebellion and invasion. With the assistance of Henry, William finally secured control of Normandy by defeating rebel Norman barons at Caen in the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes in 1047, obtaining the Truce of God, which was backed by the Roman Catholic Church.
Against the wishes of Pope Leo IX, William married Matilda of Flanders in 1053 in the chapel at Eu, Normandy (Seine-Maritime). At the time, William was about 24 years old and Matilda was 22. William is said to have been a faithful and loving husband, and their marriage produced four sons and six daughters. In repentance for what was a consanguine marriage (they were distant cousins), William donated St-Stephen's church (l'Abbaye-aux-Hommes) and Matilda donated Sainte-Trinité church (Abbaye aux Dames).
Feeling threatened by the increase in Norman power resulting from William's noble marriage, Henry I attempted to invade Normandy twice (1054 and 1057), without success. Already a charismatic leader, William attracted strong support within Normandy, including the loyalty of his half-brothers Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, who played significant roles in his life. Later, he benefited from the weakening of two competing power centers as a result of the deaths of Henry I and of Geoffrey II of Anjou, in 1060. In 1062 William invaded and took control of the county of Maine, which had been a fief of Anjou.[5]
English succession
Upon the death of the childless Edward the Confessor, the English throne was fiercely disputed by three claimants—William; Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex; and the Viking King Harald III of Norway, known as Harald Hardrada. William had a tenuous blood claim through his great aunt Emma (wife of Ethelred and mother of Edward). William also contended that Edward, who had spent much of his life in exile in Normandy during the Danish occupation of England, had promised him the throne when he visited Edward in London in 1052. Further, William claimed that Harold had pledged allegiance to him in 1064: William had rescued the shipwrecked Harold from the count of Ponthieu, and together they had defeated Conan II, Count of Brittany. On that occasion, William had knighted Harold; he had also, however, deceived Harold by having him swear loyalty to William himself over the concealed bones of a saint.[6]
In January 1066, however, in accordance with Edward's last will and by vote of the Witenagemot, Harold Godwinson was crowned King by Archbishop Aldred.
Norman Invasion
See also Wikipedia on The Norman Conquest of England Meanwhile, William submitted his claim to the English throne to Pope Alexander II, who sent him a consecrated banner in support. Then, William organized a council of war at Lillebonne and in January openly began assembling an army in Normandy. Offering promises of English lands and titles, he amassed at Dives-sur-Mer a huge invasion fleet, supposedly of 696 ships. This carried an invasion force which included, in addition to troops from William's own territories of Normandy and Maine, large numbers of mercenaries, allies and volunteers from Britanny, north-eastern France and Flanders, together with smaller numbers from other parts of France and from the Norman colonies in southern Italy. In England, Harold assembled a large army on the south coast and a fleet of ships to guard the English Channel.[6]
Fortuitously for William, his crossing was delayed by eight months of unfavourable winds. William managed to keep his army together during the wait, but Harold's was diminished by dwindling supplies and falling morale with the arrival of the harvest season, he disbanded his army on 8 September.[7] Harold also consolidated his ships in London, leaving the English Channel unguarded. Then came the news that the other contender for the throne, Harald III of Norway, allied with Tostig Godwinson, had landed ten miles from York. Harold again raised his army and after a four day forced march defeated Harald and Tostig on 25 September.
On 12 September the wind direction turned and William's fleet sailed. A storm blew up and the fleet was forced to take shelter at Saint-Valery-sur-Somme and again wait for the wind to change. On 27 September the Norman fleet finally set sail, landing in England at Pevensey Bay (Sussex) on 28 September. Thence William moved to Hastings, a few miles to the east, where he built a prefabricated wooden castle for a base of operations. From there, he ravaged the hinterland and waited for Harold's return from the north.[7]
William chose Hastings as it was at the end of a long peninsula flanked by impassable marshes. The battle was on the isthmus. William at once built a fort at Hastings to guard his rear against potential arrival of Harold's fleet from London. Having landed his army, William was less concerned about desertion and could have waited out the winter storms, raided the surrounding area for horses and started a campaign in the spring. Harold had been reconnoitering the south of England for some time and well appreciated the need to occupy this isthmus at once.[8]
Battle of Hastings
See also Wikipedia on The Battle of Hastings Harold, after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north, marched his army 241 mi (388 km) to meet the invading William in the south. On 13 October, William received news of Harold's march from London. At dawn the next day, William left the castle with his army and advanced towards the enemy. Harold had taken a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill/Senlac ridge (present-day Battle, East Sussex), about seven miles from Hastings.
The Battle of Hastings lasted all day. Although the numbers on each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, including many archers, while Harold had only foot soldiers and few if any archers.[9] Along the ridge's border, formed as a wall of shields, the English soldiers at first stood so effectively that William's army was thrown back with heavy casualties. William rallied his troops reportedly raising his helmet, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry, to quell rumors of his death. Meanwhile, many of the English had pursued the fleeing Normans on foot, allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly from the rear as his infantry pretended to retreat further.[10] Norman arrows also took their toll, progressively weakening the English wall of shields. At dusk, the English army made their last stand. A final Norman cavalry attack decided the battle irrevocably when it resulted in the death of Harold who, legend says, was killed by an arrow in the eye. Two of his brothers, Gyrth and Leofwine Godwinson, were killed as well. By nightfall, the Norman victory was complete and the remaining English soldiers fled in fear.
Battles of the time rarely lasted more than two hours before the weaker side capitulated; that Hastings lasted nine hours indicates the determination of William and Harold. Battles also ended at sundown regardless of who was winning. Harold was killed shortly before sunset and, as he would have received fresh reinforcements before the battle recommenced in the morning, he was assured of victory had he survived William's final cavalry attack.
March to London
For two weeks, William waited for a formal surrender of the English throne, but the Witenagemot proclaimed the quite young Edgar Ætheling King instead, though without coronation. Thus, William's next target was London, approaching through the important territories of Kent, via Dover and Canterbury, inspiring fear in the English. However, at London, William's advance was beaten back at London Bridge, and he decided to march westward and to storm London from the northwest. After receiving continental reinforcements, William crossed the Thames at Wallingford, and there he forced the surrender of Archbishop Stigand (one of Edgar's lead supporters), in early December. William reached Berkhamsted a few days later where Ætheling relinquished the English crown personally and the exhausted Saxon noblemen of England surrendered definitively. Although William was acclaimed then as English King, he requested a coronation in London. As William I, he was formally crowned on Christmas day 1066, in Westminster Abbey, by Archbishop Aldred[6]. According to some sources, the ceremony was not a peaceful one. Alarmed by some noises coming from the Abbey, the Norman guards stationed outside that they set fire to the neighbouring houses. A Norman monk later wrote "As the fire spread rapidly, the people in the church were thrown into confusion and crowds of them rushed outside, some to fight the flames, others to take the chance to go looting."
English resistance
Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance in the north continued for six more years until 1072. During the first two years, King William I suffered many revolts throughout England (Dover, western Mercia, Exeter) and Wales. Also, in 1068, Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south-western peninsula, but William defeated them.
For William I, the worst crisis came from Northumbria, which had still not submitted to his realm. In 1068, with Edgar Ætheling, both Mercia and Northumbria revolted. William could suppress these, but Edgar fled to Scotland where Malcolm III of Scotland protected him. Furthermore, Malcolm married Edgar's sister Margaret, with much éclat, stressing the English balance of power against William. Under such circumstances, Northumbria rebelled, besieging York. Then, Edgar resorted also to the Danes, who disembarked with a large fleet at Northumbria, claiming the English crown for their King Sweyn II. Scotland joined the rebellion as well. The rebels easily captured York and its castle. However, William could contain them at Lincoln. After dealing with a new wave of revolts at western Mercia, Exeter, Dorset, and Somerset, William defeated his northern foes decisively at the River Aire, retrieving York, while the Danish army swore to depart.
William then devastated Northumbria between the Humber and Tees rivers, with what was described as the Harrying of the North. This devastation included setting fire to the vegetation, houses and even tools to work the fields. He also burnt crops, killed livestock and sowed the fields and land with salt, to stunt growth. After this cruel treatment the land did not recover for more than 100 years. The region ended up absolutely deprived, losing its traditional autonomy towards England. However it may have stopped future rebellions, frightening the English into obedience. Then the Danish king disembarked in person, readying his army to restart the war, but William suppressed this threat with a payment of gold. In 1071, William defeated the last rebellion of the north through an improvised pontoon, subduing the Isle of Ely, where the Danes had gathered. In 1072, he invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north of England. William and Malcolm agreed to a peace by signing the Treaty of Abernethy and Malcolm gave up his son Duncan as a hostage for the peace.[11] In 1074, Edgar Ætheling submitted definitively to William.
In 1075, during William's absence, the Revolt of the Earls was confronted successfully by Odo. In 1080, William dispatched his half brothers Odo and Robert to storm Northumbria and Scotland, respectively. Eventually, the Pope protested that the Normans were mistreating the English people. Before quelling the rebellions, William had conciliated with the English church; however, he persecuted it ferociously afterwards.
Events
As would be habit for his descendants, William spent much of his time (11 years, since 1072) in Normandy, ruling the islands through his writs. Nominally still a vassal state, owing its entire loyalty to the French king, Normandy arose suddenly as a powerful region, alarming the other French dukes who reacted by persistently attacking the duchy. William became focused on conquering Brittany, and the French King Philip I admonished him. A treaty was concluded after his aborted invasion of Brittany in 1076, and William betrothed Constance to the Breton Duke Hoel's son, the future Alan IV of Brittany. The wedding occurred only in 1086, after Alan's accession to the throne, and Constance died childless a few years later.
William's elder son Robert, enraged by a prank of his brothers William and Henry, who had doused him with filthy water, undertook what became a large scale rebellion against his father's rule. Only with King Philip's additional military support was William able to confront Robert, who was then based in Flanders. During the battle of 1079, William was unhorsed and wounded by Robert, who lowered his sword only after recognizing him. The embarrassed William returned to Rouen, abandoning the expedition. In 1080, Matilda reconciled both, and William restored Robert's inheritance.
Odo caused trouble for William, too, and was imprisoned in 1082, losing his English estate and all his royal functions, but retaining his religious duties. In 1083, Matilda died, and William became more tyrannical over his realm.
Reforms William initiated many major changes. He increased the function of the traditional English shires (autonomous administrative regions), which he brought under central control; he decreased the power of the earls by restricting them to one shire apiece. All administrative functions of his government remained fixed at specific English towns, except the court itself; they would progressively strengthen, and the English institutions became amongst the most sophisticated in Europe. In 1085, in order to ascertain the extent of his new dominions and to improve taxation, William commissioned all his counselors for the compilation of the Domesday Book, which was published in 1086. The book was a survey of England's productive capacity similar to a modern census.
William also ordered many castles, keeps, and mottes, among them the Tower of London's foundation (the White Tower), to be built throughout England. These ensured effectively that the many rebellions by the English people or his own followers did not succeed. William I built the central White Tower in the Tower of London.
His conquest also led to French (especially, but not only, the Norman French) replacing English as the language of the ruling classes for nearly 300 years.[12][13] Furthermore, the original Anglo-Saxon culture of England became mingled with the Norman one; thus the Anglo-Norman culture came into being. The chapel in the White Tower was built in the Norman style by William, using Caen stone imported from France.
William is said to have eliminated the native aristocracy in as little as four years. Systematically, he despoiled those English aristocrats who either opposed the Normans or who died without issue. Thus, most English estates and titles of nobility were handed to the Norman noblemen. Many English aristocrats fled to Flanders and Scotland; others may have been sold into slavery overseas. Some escaped to join the Byzantine Empire's Varangian Guard, and went on to fight the Normans in Sicily. By 1070, the indigenous nobility had ceased to be an integral part of the English landscape, and by 1086, it maintained control of just 8% of its original land-holdings.[14] However, to the new Norman noblemen, William handed the English parcels of land piecemeal, dispersing these widely, ensuring nobody would try conspiring against him without jeopardizing their own estates within the still unstable post-invasion England. Effectively, this strengthened William's political stand as a monarch.
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury says that the king also seized and depopulated many miles of land (36 parishes), turning it into the royal New Forest region to support his enthusiastic enjoyment of hunting.[15] Modern historians, however, have come to the conclusion that the New Forest depopulation was greatly exaggerated. Most of the lands of the New Forest are poor agricultural lands, and archaeological and geographic studies have shown that the New Forest was likely sparsely settled when it was turned into a royal forest.[16]
Death, burial, and succession In 1087 in France, William burned Mantes (50 km west of Paris), besieging the town. However, he fell off his horse, suffering fatal abdominal injuries from the saddle pommel. On his deathbed, William divided his succession for his sons, sparking strife between them. Despite William's reluctance, his combative elder son Robert received the Duchy of Normandy, as Robert II. William Rufus (his third son) was next English king, as William II. William's youngest son Henry received 5,000 silver pounds, which would be earmarked to buy land. He also became King Henry I of England after William II died without issue. While on his deathbed, William pardoned many of his political adversaries, including Odo.
William died at age 59 at the Convent of St Gervais in Rouen, capital city of Normandie, France, on 9 September 1087. William was buried in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, which he had erected, in Caen, Normandy. It is said that Herluin, his step-father, loyally bore his body to his grave.[17]
The original owner of the land on which the church was built claimed he had not been paid yet, demanding 60 shillings, which William's son Henry had to pay on the spot. In a most unregal postmortem, it was found that William's corpulent body would not fit in the stone sarcophagus as his body had bloated due to the warm weather and length of time that had passed since his death. A group of bishops applied pressure on the king's abdomen to force the body downward but the abdominal wall burst and putrefaction drenched the king's coffin "filling the church with a foul smell". William's grave is currently marked by a marble slab with a Latin inscription; the slab dates from the early 19th century. The grave was defiled twice, once during the French Wars of Religion, when his bones were scattered across the town of Caen, and again during the French Revolution. Following those events, only William's left femur, some skin particles and bone dust remain in the tomb.
Legacy William's invasion was the last time that England was successfully conquered by a foreign power. Although there would be a number of other attempts over the centuries, the best that could be achieved would be excursions by foreign troops, such as the Raid on the Medway during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, but no actual conquests such as William's. There have however been occasions since that time when foreign rulers have succeeded to the English/British throne, notably the Dutch Stadtholder William III of Orange who in 1688, with his Dutch army, was invited by prominent English politicians to invade England with the intention of deposing the Catholic king James II (see Glorious Revolution) and George of Hanover b. 1660, who acceded by virtue of the exclusion of Roman Catholics from the succession.
As Duke of Normandy and King of England he divided his realm among his sons, but the lands were reunited under his son Henry, and his descendants acquired other territories through marriage or conquest and, at their height, these possessions would be known as the Angevin Empire.
They included many lands in France, such as Normandy and Aquitaine, but the question of jurisdiction over these territories would be the cause of much conflict and bitter rivalry between England and France, which took up much of the Middle Ages, including the Hundred Years War and, some might argue, continued as far as the Battle of Waterloo of 1815.
An example of William's legacy even in modern times can be seen on the Bayeux Memorial, a monument erected by Britain in the Normandy town of Bayeux to those killed in the Battle of Normandy during World War II. A Latin inscription on the memorial reads NOS A GULIELMO VICTI VICTORIS PATRIAM LIBERAVIMUS – freely translated, this reads "We, once conquered by William, have now set free the Conqueror's native land".[18]
Physical appearance No authentic portrait of William has been found. Nonetheless, he was depicted as a man of fair stature with remarkably strong arms, "with which he could shoot a bow at full gallop". William showed a magnificent appearance, possessing a fierce countenance. He enjoyed excellent health until old age; nevertheless his noticeable corpulence in later life increased eventually so much that French King Philip I commented that William looked like a pregnant woman.[19] Examination of his femur, the only bone to survive when the rest of his remains were destroyed, showed he was approximately 5' 10" tall which was around two inches taller than the average for the 11th century.[20]
Fictional depictions William I has appeared as a character in only a few stage and screen productions. The one-act play A Choice of Kings by John Mortimer deals with his deception of Harold after the latter's shipwreck. Julian Glover portrayed him in a 1966 TV adaptation of this play in the ITV Play of the Week series.
William has also been portrayed on screen by Thayer Roberts in the film Lady Godiva of Coventry (1955), John Carson in the BBC TV series Hereward the Wake (1965), Alan Dobie in the two-part BBC TV play Conquest (1966; part of the series Theatre 625), and Michael Gambon in the TV drama Blood Royal: William the Conqueror (1990).
On a less serious note, he has been portrayed by David Lodge in an episode of the TV comedy series Carry On Laughing entitled "One in the Eye for Harold" (1975), James Fleet in the humorous BBC show The Nearly Complete and Utter History of Everything (1999), and Gavin Abbott in an episode "1066" (2004).
Notes
1. ^ The official web site of the British Monarchy puts his birth at "around 1028", which may reasonably be taken as definitive. The frequently encountered date of 14 October 1024 is likely to be spurious. It was promulgated by Thomas Roscoe in his 1846 biography The life of William the Conqueror. The year 1024 is apparently calculated from the fictive deathbed confession of William recounted by Ordericus Vitalis (who was about twelve when the Conqueror died); in it William allegedly claimed to be about sixty-three or four years of age at his death bed in 1087. The birth day and month are suspiciously the same as those of the Battle of Hastings. This date claim, repeated by other Victorian historians (e.g. Jacob Abbott), has been entered unsourced into the LDS genealogical database, and has found its way thence into countless personal genealogies. Cf. The Conqueror and His Companions by J.R. Planché, Somerset Herald. London: Tinsley Brothers, 1874.
References
1. ^ a b c Bates, David (2001). William the Conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. pp. 33. ISBN 0-7524-1980-3. 2. ^ Dr. Mike Ibeji (2001-05-01). "1066". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml. Retrieved 2007-07-16. 3. ^ Powell, John, Magill's Guide to Military History, Salem Press, Inc., 2001, p. 226. ISBN 0893560197. 4. ^ Official Website of the British Monarchy. William I 'The Conqueror' (r. 1066–1087. Kings and Queens of England (to 1603). Retrieved on: 12 October 2008. 5. ^ David Carpenter, The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066-1284 (2003). 6. ^ a b c Clark, George (1978) [1971]. "The Norman Conquest". English History: A Survey. Oxford University Press/Book Club Associates. ISBN 0198223390. 7. ^ a b Carpenter, p. 72. 8. ^ N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, Vol 1: 660-1649, pp. 32–35. 9. ^ Carpenter, p. 73. 10. ^ Ibid. 11. ^ J.D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (1964), page 45. 12. ^ While English emerged as a popular vernacular and literary language within one hundred years of the Conquest, it was only in 1362 that King Edward III abolished the use of French in Parliament 13. ^ Alexander Herman Schutz and Urban Tigner Holmes, A History of the French Language, Biblo and Tannen Publishers, 1938. pp. 44–45. ISBN 0819601918. 14. ^ Douglas, David Charles. English Historical Documents, Routledge, 1996, p. 22. ISBN 0415143675. 15. ^ Based on William of Malmesbury's Historia Anglorum. He was of just stature, ordinary corpulence, fierce countenance; his forehead was bare of hair; of such great strength of arm that it was often a matter of surprise, that no one was able to draw his bow, which himself could bend when his horse was in full gallop; he was majestic whether sitting or standing, although the protuberance of his belly deformed his royal person; of excellent health so that he was never confined with any dangerous disorder, except at the last; so given to the pleasures of the chase, that as I have before said, ejecting the inhabitants, he let a space of many miles grow desolate that, when at liberty from other avocations, he might there pursue his pleasures. See English Monarch: The House of Normandy. 16. ^ Young, Charles R. (1979). The Royal Forests of Medieval England. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-8122-7760-0. 17. ^ Freeman, Edward A., William the Conqueror (1902), p. 276-277 18. ^ [1], retrieved 10 October 2008. 19. ^ Spartacus Schoolnet, retrieved 17 July 2007. 20. ^ The Year of the Conqueror by Alan Lloyd 21. ^ The Conqueror and His Companions (J.R Planche 1874) 22. ^ William "the Conqueror" (Guillaume "le Conquérant").
Further reading
* Douglas, David C. (1999) William the Conqueror; the Norman impact upon England, Yale English monarchs series, London : Yale University Press, 476 p., ISBN 0-300-07884-6 * Howarth, David (1977) 1066 The Year of the Conquest, London : Collins, 207 p., ISBN 0-00-211845-9 * Prescott, Hilda F.M. (1932) Son of Dust, reprinted 1978: London : White Lion, 288 p. ISBN 0-85617-239-1 * Savage, Anne (transl. and coll.) (2002) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, London : Greenwich Editions, 288 p., ISBN 0-86288-440-3 * Wensby-Scott, Carol. (1984) Proud Conquest, London : Futura Publications, 240 p., IBSN 0-7088-2620-2
English Monarchs
From http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/normans.htm
Parentage and Early Life England's first Norman king, William I, was born in 1028, at Falaise Castle, the illegitimate son of Robert the Devil or the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy and Herleve, (sometimes called Arlette) the daughter of Fullbert, a tanner of Falaise. Before history renamed him the Conqueror he was more commonly known to his contemporaries as William the Bastard. Herleve was reported to have attracted Duke Robert with her dancing, in some accounts, he is said to have first caught sight of her while she was washing her linen in the castle moat.
The Norman dynasty had been founded by Robert's ancestor Rollo or Hrolf the Ganger, a Viking raider chief, who was granted the duchy by Charles the Simple, King of France, in 911, at the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, in exchange for feudal alliegiance and conversion to Christianity at which he took the baptismal name of Robert.
William's mother, Herleve, also had a daughter, Adelaide, to Duke Robert. Although they had a long relationship, the gap in their social standing rendered marriage out of the question and Herleve was married off to one of Robert's vassals, Herluin, a knight. From this marriage, Herleve produced two further sons, Robert, who later became Count of Mortain and Odo, destined to become Bishop of Bayeux and also to play a part in England's history.
William, Duke of Normandy Duke Robert decided to expiate his sins, which were many, by going on pilgrimage in 1034. Since he had no legitimate heir to succeed him, he persuaded his unruly barons to accept the illegitimate William as future Duke of Normandy. On his return journey from the Holy Land Robert died suddenly and the young William succeeded to the Dukedom by his father's will.
The barons exhibited no loyalty to the"'base born" child and thereafter William grew up in the school of adversity. He had to learn, very early, how to survive. The barons constantly rebelled and anarchy reigned in Normandy during the years of William's minority. William's guardians were murdered in succession. Osbern was killed whilst guarding his door. His maternal uncle, Walter, at one point resorted to hiding the child with some poor people. William was formed and moulded by this savage and insecure childhood into the stark and often ruthless ruler he was later to become.
In 1047, he asserted his authority and crushed the rebels at Val-es-Dunes after which he began to restore order in his Dukedom. At Alencon, the burghers insulted his birth by hanging "hides for the tanner" over the walls. On taking the town he exacted a terrible revenge and had both their hands and feet amputated. One of lifes great survivors, William finally emerged as undisputed Duke of Normandy.
William's appearance William matured into a tall, thick set man with dark hair, which receeded from his forehead early. His voice was rasping and guttural. William undoubtedly possessed considerable powers of leadership and courage. He was devout and inspired loyalty in his followers, but could also be ruthless and cruel.
William of Malmesbury provides us with a detailed description of the king in his Historia Anglorum:-
'He was of just stature, ordinary corplulence, fierce countenance; his forehead was bare of hair; of such great strength of arm that it was often a matter of surprise, that no one was able to draw his bow, which himself could bend when his horse was in full gallop; he was majestic whether sitting or standing, although the protuberance of his belly deformed his royal person; of excellent health so that he was never confined with any dangerous disorder, except at the last; so given to the pleasures of the chase, that as I have before said, ejecting the inhabitants, he let a space of many miles grow desolate that, when at liberty from other avocations, he might there pursue his pleasures.
His anxiety for money is the only thing on which he can deservedly be blamed. This he sought all opportunities of scraping together, he cared not how; he would say and do some things and indeed almost anything, unbecoming to such great majesty, where the hope of money allured him. I have here no excuse whatever to offer, unless it be, as one has said, that of necessity he must fear many, whom many fear.'
William negotiated a marriage in 1049 to Matilda, a descendant of the old Saxon House of Wessex and daughter of Baldwin, Count of Flanders and Adela, daughter of Robert II, King of France. They were an ill-assorted pair, he strongly built and five feet ten inches tall and she ( as it emerged when her skeleton was exhumed) just over four feet tall, almost a dwarf. It proved however, to be a highly successful union and produced a large family.
The Conquest of England The Duke of Normandy visited his English cousin, Edward the Confessor, in 1051. Edward and his brother Alfred had spent much of their childhood in exile at the Norman Court, their mother, Emma, had been a daughter of the House of Normandy. During this visit, Edward is purported to have promised his Norman cousin the crown of England, should he die without issue. The real heir was Edgar the Atheling, Edward's great-nephew, the grandson of his elder brother Edmund Ironside, but he was still a child and knew little of England, having spent much of his life in exile in Hungary. Others also coveted the English throne, the chief candidate amongst these was Harold, son of the powerful Godwine, Earl of Wessex.
Harold was unfortunately shipwrecked on the coast of Normandy, where he found himself the unwilling guest of Duke William. The Confessor was now unlikely to survive long and Harold was anxious to return to England to forward his ambitions there. However, before he would allow his guest to leave, William required him to swear an oath to support his claim to the crown upon Edward's death. Under duress, Harold finally consented and swore the oath on holy relics.
Edward the Confessor finally breathed his last in January, 1066, and was buried in his foundation of St.Peter, Westminster, which had been consecrated but ten days previously. It was reported that on his deathbed he had nominated Harold as his successor who was duly accepted as King by the Saxon Witangemot or council of elders, which traditionally elected the next English King.
Back in Normandy, on reciept of this ominous news, the formidable Duke William flew into a rage. He began to build an invasion fleet to take by force what he considered to be his by right. The Pope himself, due to Harold's foresworn oath on holy relics, supported William's enterprise. After Harold was crowned by Archbishop Stigand, a portentous star was seen in the skies, this has now been identified as Halley's comet, many in that superstitious age saw it as an omen of the wrath of God on the perjured King Harold and his followers.
Harold assembled the fyrdd, the Saxon militia of freemen, in preparation for William's imminent landing, whilst the Duke prepared his fleet and waited for good weather to set sail for England. In mid September, Harold Hardrada, King of Norway, invaded England, accompanied by Tostig, Earl of Northumbria, Harold's unruly and discontented brother, who had earlier been banished and his earldom confiscated.
Harold marched his army north in haste to meet the invaders at Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, where he won a decisive victory over the Viking army. At this time, the winds William had been pensively awaiting turned favourable and he set sail with his massive invasion fleet. News of his landing at Bulverhythe was conveyed to Harold, who responded by hurrying south to meet him, giving his exhausted army no respite. Had Harold rested and reorganized his army, the outcome of the impending battle and English history could have been very different.
On 14th October, the Saxon and Norman forces clashed in the fateful Battle of Hastings. Harold took up a defensive position on Senlac Ridge. The Norman army was thus forced to attack uphill, placing them at a disadvantage.
The Saxon army formed a shield wall along the edge of the hill which rebuffed repeated Norman attacks. A rumour arose in the Norman ranks that Duke William was dead, causing panic and flight. Many of the Saxon fyrdd pursued the fleeing Normans down the hill. William put heart into his army by loudly announcing he still lived. The Normans rallied, Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine were both slain on the battlefield.
The battle continued for most of the day, Harold and his Saxons fought with steely determination for possession of their country. As dusk began to fall over Hastings, William ordered his archers to fire high into the air and one of these arrows is said to have hit Harold in the eye, blinding him, although this point is disputed by some sources. Whether this was the case or not, Harold fell mortally wounded under the dragon standard of Wessex.
The Saxon army, seeing that the day was lost, began to flee the field. The houscarls, Harold's trained professional militia, loyally and valiantly defended the body of their King to the last, but they too finally fell and Harold's body was mutilated by the Normans, a vindictive act, which William punished. The battle was lost and Anglo-Saxon England died with Harold on the battlefield that day.
Click for a fuller account of the Battle of Hasings
Harold's deeply distressed mistress, Edith Swan-neck came to William pleading for her lover's body and offering him its weight in gold in exchange, but William coldly refused her distraught request. He had Harold buried in a secret location.
William proceeded to London, where he was crowned King of England at Edward the Confessor's foundation of Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, 1066.
He accepted the surrender of the Saxon Earls Edwine and Morkere along with that of the child claimant, Edgar Atheling and defeated the heroic Hereward the Wake at Ely. On the whole the south of England submitted to Norman rule, whereas in the north resistance was more prolonged. William responded by subjecting the English to a reign of terror. Determined to punish and crush rebellion to his rule and strike abject fear into English hearts, he laid waste vast tracts of Yorkshire, which suffered under a great famine for nine years after as a result. He rewarded his Norman and French followers by distributing the confiscated lands of the English to them.
William was a savage and formidable ruler, by modern standards an exceedingly cruel one, but his methods produced the desired results and extinguished the fires of opposition. Many castles and keeps were built across the country to enforce his rule, originally wooden towers or earthen mottes, in all over 80 castles were established during the reign, including the White Tower, the first building in the Tower of London complex. The dominating shadow of the White Tower loomed menacingly over medieval London, a visible expression of Norman power.
The new King's half brother, Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, commissioned a tapestry to commemorate his brother's victory in 1078. It depicts a series of scenes leading up to and during the conquest. William's conversion of the New Forest into a royal hunting ground saw the introduction of harsh and severe forest laws, which caused great resentment amongst the Anglo-Saxons. William changed England's laws and inflicted harsh punishments for offenders. Murder became an officially punishable crime in England and slavery was abolished.
Anglo-Saxon England was radically altered by the Norman conquest, it changed the entire way of life then established in the country. Its laws, aristocracy and church were altered and it introduced the French feudal system. The Anglo-Saxon language was replaced by Norman French as the language of the upper classes, modern English is the natural outgrowth of both. The role of the conquerors and the conquered can still be detected in many English words, the Saxon cow, tended by the lowly Saxon villein became the Norman beef when it appeared on the lord's table. The Saxon swine became Norman gammon. There are countless other examples in modern English which amply illlustrate the role of Saxon servant and Norman master.
The Norman Feudal System, which William introduced into England, was a complicated heirarchial structure at whose apex sat the king. That lords held their lands under the king in exchange for homage and military assistance rendered to him in times of need.
The Domesday Book In December, 1085, William decided to commision an enquiry into the extent of his dominions to maximise taxation. This unique survey was known to history as the Domesday Book. The Domesday Book still survives today in the Public Record Office, London and is an extraordinary document for its time.
The Death of William I The last year of William's life was spent fighting in Normandy, in battle for the Vexin, a much disputed territory, which lay between Normandy and France. Amongst those opposing him was his rebellious eldest son, Robert, nicknamed Curthose by his father, due to his short legs.
On 9th September, 1087, whilst riding through the smouldering ruins of the sacked town of Mantes, in what must have appeared to him as like an act of divine retribution, William was thrown from his horse when it trod on burning ashes and sustained severe abdominal injuries.
The King, now aged fifty nine and mortally injured, was carried to the convent of St. Gervais in Rouen, the Norman capital. There he summoned his younger sons, William and Henry, to his deathbed. Robert Curthose remained at the court of France.
England was bequeathed to his second surviving and favourite son, William Rufus and despite his bitter differences with Robert Curthose, he left Normandy to him. To Henry, the youngest son, later destined to inherit all his dominions, he left 5,000 silver pounds. He is reported to have ruminated on and repented of his many sins, transgressions and cruelties at the end. He tried to salve his conscience, before preparing to meet his maker and fearing for his immortal soul, he ordered all the treasure he possessed in Rouen to be given to the church and the poor and forgave his enemies. William the Conqueror died on 9th September, 1087, having ruled England for 21 years.
William was buried in the monastery of St.Stephen at Caen in Normandy, an abbey he had previously founded as an act of repentence for his consanguineous marriage to Matilda of Flanders. The body was broken as it was lowered into the sepulchre, made too short by the stonemasons and the ceremony was interrupted by a dispossessed knight. A stone slab with a Latin inscription, in the abbey church of Caen today marks the burial place of the first Norman King of England. His grave has since been desecrated twice, in the course of the French Wars of Religion his bones were scattered across Caen, and during the tumultuous events of the French Revolution, the Conqueror's tomb was again despoiled.
Roi d'Angleterre (William I)
Duc de Normandie
William I 'the Conqueror', King of England was born between 1027 and 1028 at Falise Castle, Falaise, Normandy, France, illegitimately.2,3 He was the son of Robert I, 6th Duc de Normandie and Herleva de Falaise. He married Matilda de Flandre, daughter of Baldwin V de Lille, Comte de Flandre and Adela de France, Princesse de France, in 1053 at Cathedral of Notre Dame d'Eu, Normandy, France.3 He died on 9 September 1087 at Priory of St. Gervais, Rouen, Caux, France, from wounds received while fighting.4 He was buried at St. Stephen Abbey, Caen, Normandy, France.4
William I 'the Conqueror', King of England also went by the nick-name of William 'the Conqueror'.5 William I 'the Conqueror', King of England also went by the nick-name of William 'le Batard' (or in English, the Bastard).5 In 1035 on his father's death, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15.6 He succeeded to the title of 7th Duc de Normandie on 22 June 1035.3 He gained the title of Comte de Maine in 1063.3 He fought in the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 at Hastings, Sussex, England.3 He gained the title of King William I of England on 25 December 1066.7 He was crowned King of England on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, England, and styled 'Willielmus Rex Anglorum.7' He fought in the Siege of Mantes in September 1087.4 From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer). William's military successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne (he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper. Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000 cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September, Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish his exhausted veterans as he marched. At the Battle of Senlac (near Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number (they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry, both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English forces fled. In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it, remain. Three months after his coronation, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest, and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides of the Channel. In 1068, Harold's sons raided the south-west coast of England (dealt with by William's local commanders), and there were uprisings in the Welsh Marches, Devon and Cornwall. William appointed earls who, in Wales and in all parts of the kingdom, undertook to guard the threatened frontiers and maintain internal security in return for land. In 1069, the Danes, in alliance with Prince Edgar the Aetheling (Ethelred's great-grandson) and other English nobles, invaded the north and took York. Taking personal charge, and pausing only to deal with the rising at Stafford, William drove the Danes back to their ships on the Humber. In a harsh campaign lasting into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia and Northumbria to deprive the Danes of their supplies and prevent recovery of English resistance. Churches and monasteries were burnt, and agricultural land was laid to waste, creating a famine for the unarmed and mostly peasant population which lasted at least nine years. Although the Danes were bribed to leave the north, King Sweyn of Denmark and his ships threatened the east coast (in alliance with various English, including Hereward the Wake) until a treaty of peace was concluded in June 1070. Further north, where the boundary with Scotland was unclear, King Malcolm III was encroaching into England. Yet again, William moved swiftly and moved land and sea forces north to invade Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy in 1072 marked a truce, which was reinforced by Malcolm's eldest son being accepted as a hostage. William consolidated his conquest by starting a castle-building campaign in strategic areas. Originally these castles were wooden towers on earthen 'mottes' (mounds) with a bailey (defensive area) surrounded by earth ramparts, but many were later rebuilt in stone. By the end of William's reign over 80 castles had been built throughout his kingdom, as a permanent reminder of the new Norman feudal order. William's wholesale confiscation of land from English nobles and their heirs (many nobles had died at the battles of Stamford Bridge and Senlac) enabled him to recruit and retain an army, by demanding military duties in exchange for land tenancy granted to Norman, French and Flemish allies. He created up to 180 'honours' (lands scattered through shires, with a castle as the governing centre), and in return had some 5,000 knights at his disposal to repress rebellions and pursue campaigns; the knights were augmented by mercenaries and English infantry from the Anglo-Saxon militia, raised from local levies. William also used the fyrd, the royal army - a military arrangement which had survived the Conquest. The King's tenants-in-chief in turn created knights under obligation to them and for royal duties (this was called subinfeudation), with the result that private armies centred around private castles were created - these were to cause future problems of anarchy for unfortunate or weak kings. By the end of William's reign, a small group of the King's tenants had acquired about half of England's landed wealth. Only two Englishmen still held large estates directly from the King. A foreign aristocracy had been imposed as the new governing class. The expenses of numerous campaigns, together with an economic slump (caused by the shifts in landed wealth, and the devastation of northern England for military and political reasons), prompted William to order a full-scale investigation into the actual and potential wealth of the kingdom to maximise tax revenues. The Domesday survey was prompted by ignorance of the state of land holding in England, as well as the result of the costs of defence measures in England and renewed war in France. The scope, speed, efficiency and completion of this survey was remarkable for its time and resulted in the two-volume Domesday Book of 1086, which still exists today. William needed to ensure the direct loyalty of his feudal tenants. The 1086 Oath of Salisbury was a gathering of William's 170 tenants-in-chief and other important landowners who took an oath of fealty to William. William's reach extended elsewhere into the Church and the legal system. French superseded the vernacular (Anglo-Saxon). Personally devout, William used his bishops to carry out administrative duties. Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury from 1070, was a first-class administrator who assisted in government when William was absent in France, and who reorganised the Church in England. Having established the primacy of his archbishopric over that of York, and with William's approval, Lanfranc excommunicated rebels, and set up Church or spiritual courts to deal with ecclesiastical matters. Lanfranc also replaced English bishops and abbots (some of whom had already been removed by the Council of Winchester under papal authority) with Norman or French clergy to reduce potential political resistance. In addition, Canterbury and Durham Cathedrals were rebuilt and some of the bishops' sees were moved to urban centres. At his coronation, William promised to uphold existing laws and customs. The Anglo-Saxon shire courts and 'hundred' courts (which administered defence and tax, as well as justice matters) remained intact, as did regional variations and private Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions. To strengthen royal justice, William relied on sheriffs (previously smaller landowners, but replaced by influential nobles) to supervise the administration of justice in existing county courts, and sent members of his own court to conduct important trials. However, the introduction of Church courts, the mix of Norman/Roman law and the differing customs led to a continuing complex legal framework. More severe forest laws reinforced William's conversion of the New Forest into a vast Royal deer reserve. These laws caused great resentment, and to English chroniclers the New Forest became a symbol of William's greed. Nevertheless the King maintained peace and order. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1087 declared 'he was a very stern and violent man, so no one dared do anything contrary to his will ... Amongst other things the good security he made in this country is not to be forgotten.' William spent the last months of his reign in Normandy, fighting a counter-offensive in the French Vexin territory against King Philip's annexation of outlying Normandy territory. Before his death on 9 September 1087, William divided his 'Anglo-Norman' state between his sons. (The scene was set for centuries of expensive commitments by successive English monarchs to defend their inherited territories in France.) William bequeathed Normandy as he had promised to his eldest son Robert, despite their bitter differences (Robert had sided with his father's enemies in Normandy, and even wounded and defeated his father in a battle there in 1079). His son, William Rufus, was to succeed William as King of England, and the third remaining son, Henry, was left 5,000 pounds in silver.8 He has an extensive biographical entry in the Dictionary of National Biography.9
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England
William I (circa 1028[1] – 9 September 1087), also known as William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquérant), was the first Norman King of England from Christmas 1066 until his death. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II. Before his conquest of England, he was known as William the Bastard because of the illegitimacy of his birth.
William was born in either 1027 or 1028 in Château de Falaise in Falaise, Normandy, France, and more likely in the autumn of the later year.[1][notes 1] William was the only son of Robert I, Duke of Normandy, as well as the grandnephew of the English Queen, Emma of Normandy, wife of King Ethelred the Unready and then of King Canute the Great.[3] Though illegitimate, his father named him as heir to Normandy. His mother, Herleva, who later married and bore two sons to Herluin de Conteville, was the daughter of Fulbert of Falaise. In addition to his two half-brothers, Odo of Bayeux and Robert, Count of Mortain, William also had a sister, Adelaide of Normandy, another child of Robert.
William's illegitimacy affected his early life. As a child, his life was in constant danger from his kinsmen who thought they had a more legitimate right to rule. One attempt on William's life occurred while he slept at a castle keep at Vaudreuil, when the murderer mistakenly stabbed the child sleeping next to William.[4] Nevertheless, when his father died, he was recognized as the heir.[5] Later in his life, his enemies are reported to have called him "William the Bastard", and derided him as the son of a tanner's daughter, and the residents of besieged Alençon hung animal skins from the city walls to taunt him.
King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy
William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy
William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy married Maud, daughter of Ingelric, DID NOT MARRY. William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy was born on 14 October 1024 at Falaise, Normandy, France. He married Matilda of Flanders, daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders and Adela of France, in 1053 at Eu, France. William 'the Conqueror', King of England, 7th Duke of Normandy died on 9 September 1087 at Priory St. Gervais, Rouen, France, at age 62.
'Also knowen as William the Conqueror
Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England, defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty. As King, William was noted for his efficient if harsh rule. His administration relied upon Norman and other foreign personnell especially Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1085 started Domesday Book
Duke of Normandy, King of England, 1066-1087, Nickname: William the Conqueror- -The Oxford History of Britain- by Kenneth Morgan, 1984, pp.101-144. -The Kings and Queens of England- by Nicholas Best, 1995, p.9. -Western Europe in the Middle Ages,300-1475-by Tierney, 1978,pp.178-183. Born: 1027 Died: September 9, 1087 Parents: Robert I, Duke of Normandy and Herleva of Falasia Significant Siblings: none Spouse: Mathilda (daughter of Count Baldwin of Flanders) Significant Offspring: Robert, William Rufus, Henry, and Adela Contemporaries: Edward the Confessor (King of England, 1047-1066); Harold Godwinson (King of England, 1066); Henry I (King of France, 1031-1060); Philip I (King of France, 1060-1108); Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085); Lanfranc (Archbishop of Canterbury)
-France in the Middle Ages,987-1460- by George Duby,1987, chart 6. -Royal Ancestors- by Michel Call, 1989, Chart # 11420.
Reigned 1066-1087. Duke of Normandy 1035-1087. Invaded England defeated and killed his rival Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became King. The Norman conquest of England was completed by 1072 aided by the establishment of feaudalism under which his followers were granted land in return for pledges of service and loyalty. As King William was noted for his efficient if harsh rule. His administration relied upon Norman and other foreign personnell especially Lanfranc Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1085 started Domesday Book.
William, the illegitimate son of the Duke of Normandy, spent his first six years with his mother in Falaise and received the duchy of Normandy upon his father's death in 1035. A council consisting of noblemen and William's appointed guardians ruled Normandy but ducal authority waned under the Normans' violent nature and the province was wracked with assassination and revolt for twelve years. In 1047, William reasserted himself in the eastern Norman regions and, with the aid of France's King Henry I, crushed the rebelling barons. He spent the next several years consolidating his strength on the continent through marriage, diplomacy, war and savage intimidation. By 1066, Normandy was in a position of virtual independence from William's feudal lord, Henry I of France and the disputed succession in England offered William an opportunity for invasion.
Edward the Confessor attempted to gain Norman support while fighting with his father-in-law, Earl Godwin, by purportedly promising the throne to William in 1051. (This was either a false claim by William or a hollow promise from Edward; at that time, the kingship was not necessarily hereditary but was appointed by the witan, a council of clergy and barons.) Before his death in 1066, however, Edward reconciled with Godwin, and the witan agreed to Godwin's son, Harold, as heir to the crown - after the recent Danish kings, the members of the council were anxious to keep the monarchy in Anglo-Saxon hands. William was enraged and immediately prepared to invade, insisting that Harold had sworn allegiance to him in 1064. Prepared for battle in August 1066, ill winds throughout August and most of September prohibited him crossing the English Channel. This turned out to be advantageous for William, however, as Harold Godwinson awaited William's pending arrival on England's south shores, Harold Hardrada, the King of Norway, invaded England from the north. Harold Godwinson's forces marched north to defeat the Norse at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Two days after the battle, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and spent the next two weeks pillaging the area and strengthening his position on the beachhead. The victorious Harold, in an attempt to solidify his kingship, took the fight south to William and the Normans on October 14, 1066 at Hastings. After hours of holding firm against the Normans, the tired English forces finally succumbed to the onslaught. Harold and his brothers died fighting in the Hastings battle, removing any further organized Anglo-Saxon resistance to the Normans. The earls and bishops of the witan hesitated in supporting William, but soon submitted and crowned him William I on Christmas Day 1066. The kingdom was immediately besieged by minor uprisings, each one individually and ruthlessly crushed by the Normans, until the whole of England was conquered and united in 1072. William punished rebels by confiscating their lands and allocating them to the Normans. Uprisings in the northern counties near York were quelled by an artificial famine brought about by Norman destruction of food caches and farming implements.
The arrival and conquest of William and the Normans radically altered the course of English history. Rather than attempt a wholesale replacement of Anglo-Saxon law, William fused continental practices with native custom. By disenfranchising Anglo-Saxon landowners, he instituted a brand of feudalism in England that strengthened the monarchy. Villages and manors were given a large degree of autonomy in local affairs in return for military service and monetary payments. The Anglo-Saxon office of sheriff was greatly enhanced: sheriffs arbitrated legal cases in the shire courts on behalf of the king, extracted tax payments and were generally responsible for keeping the peace. ...The Domesday Book... was commissioned in 1085 as a survey of land ownership to assess property and establish a tax base. Within the regions covered by the Domesday survey, the dominance of the Norman king and his nobility are revealed: only two Anglo-Saxon barons that held lands before 1066 retained those lands twenty years later. All landowners were summoned to pay homage to William in 1086. William imported an Italian, Lanfranc, to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury; Lanfranc reorganized the English Church, establishing separate Church courts to deal with infractions of Canon law. Although he began the invasion with papal support, William refused to let the church dictate policy within English and Norman borders.
He died as he had lived: an inveterate warrior. He died September 9, 1087 from complications of a wound he received in a siege on the town of Mantes.
...The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle... gave a favorable review of William's twenty-one year reign, but added, ...His anxiety for money is the only thing on which he can deservedly be blamed; . . .he would say and do some things and indeed almost anything . . .where the hope of money allured him.... He was certainly cruel by modern standards, and exacted a high toll from his subjects, but he laid the foundation for the economic and political success of England.
William, the illegitimate son of the Duke of Normandy, spent his first six years with his mother in Falaise and received the duchy of Normandy upon his father's death in 1035. A council consisting of noblemen and William's appointed guardians ruled Normandy but ducal authority waned under the Normans' violent nature and the province was wracked with assassination and revolt for twelve years. In 1047, William reasserted himself in the eastern Norman regions and, with the aid of France's King Henry I, crushed the rebelling barons. He spent the next several years consolidating his strength on the continent through marriage, diplomacy, war and savage intimidation. By 1066, Normandy was in a position of virtual independence from William's feudal lord, Henry I of France and the disputed succession in England offered William an opportunity for invasion.
Edward the Confessor attempted to gain Norman support while fighting with his father-in-law, Earl Godwin, by purportedly promising the throne to William in 1051. (This was either a false claim by William or a hollow promise from Edward; at that time, the kingship was not necessarily hereditary but was appointed by the witan, a council of clergy and barons.) Before his death in 1066, however, Edward reconciled with Godwin, and the witan agreed to Godwin's son, Harold, as heir to the crown - after the recent Danish kings, the members of the council were anxious to keep the monarchy in Anglo-Saxon hands. William was enraged and immediately prepared to invade, insisting that Harold had sworn allegiance to him in 1064. Prepared for battle in August 1066, ill winds throughout August and most of September prohibited him crossing the English Channel. This turned out to be advantageous for William, however, as Harold Godwinson awaited William's pending arrival on England's south shores, Harold Hardrada, the King of Norway, invaded England from the north. Harold Godwinson's forces marched north to defeat the Norse at Stamford Bridge on September 25, 1066. Two days after the battle, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and spent the next two weeks pillaging the area and strengthening his position on the beachhead. The victorious Harold, in an attempt to solidify his kingship, took the fight south to William and the Normans on October 14, 1066 at Hastings. After hours of holding firm against the Normans, the tired English forces finally succumbed to the onslaught. Harold and his brothers died fighting in the Hastings battle, removing any further organized Anglo-Saxon resistance to the Normans. The earls and bishops of the witan hesitated in supporting William, but soon submitted and crowned him William I on Christmas Day 1066. The kingdom was immediately besieged by minor uprisings, each one individually and ruthlessly crushed by the Normans, until the whole of England was conquered and united in 1072. William punished rebels by confiscating their lands and allocating them to the Normans. Uprisings in the northern counties near York were quelled by an artificial famine brought about by Norman destruction of food caches and farming implements.
The arrival and conquest of William and the Normans radically altered the course of English history. Rather than attempt a wholesale replacement of Anglo-Saxon law, William fused continental practices with native custom. By disenfranchising Anglo-Saxon landowners, he instituted a brand of feudalism in England that strengthened the monarchy. Villages and manors were given a large degree of autonomy in local affairs in return for military service and monetary payments. The Anglo-Saxon office of sheriff was greatly enhanced: sheriffs arbitrated legal cases in the shire courts on behalf of the king, extracted tax payments and were generally responsible for keeping the peace. ...The Domesday Book... was commissioned in 1085 as a survey of land ownership to assess property and establish a tax base. Within the regions covered by the Domesday survey, the dominance of the Norman king and his nobility are revealed: only two Anglo-Saxon barons that held lands before 1066 retained those lands twenty years later. All landowners were summoned to pay homage to William in 1086. William imported an Italian, Lanfranc, to take the position of Archbishop of Canterbury; Lanfranc reorganized the English Church, establishing separate Church courts to deal with infractions of Canon law. Although he began the invasion with papal support, William refused to let the church dictate policy within English and Norman borders.
He died as he had lived: an inveterate warrior. He died September 9, 1087 from complications of a wound he received in a siege on the town of Mantes.
William I (1028 c. – 10/9/1087) AKA William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard First Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. The descendant of Viking raiders, he had been Duke of Normandy since 1035 under the style William II. After a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands and by difficulties with his eldest son.
William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Robert's mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, as did the anarchy that plagued the first years of his rule. During his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy, a process that was not complete until about 1060. His marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and abbots in the Norman church. His consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine.
In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by his childless cousin Edward the Confessor. There were other potential claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson, who was named the next king by Edward on the latter's deathbed in January 1066. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, and that Harold had sworn to support William's claim. William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066, in London. He made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 William's hold on England was mostly secure, allowing him to spend the majority of the rest of his reign on the Continent.
William's final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France, and was buried in Caen. His reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, but instead continued to administer each part separately. William's lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert, and his second surviving son, William, received England.
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Guillermo I de Inglaterra (Falaise, Normandía, c. 10281 – Ruan, 9 de septiembre de 1087), más conocido como Guillermo el Conquistador,N 1 fue el primer rey de Inglaterra de origen normando, con un reinado que se extendió desde 1066 hasta su muerte en 1087. Descendiente de vikingos, desde 1035 fue duque de Normandía con el nombre de Guillermo II. Tras una larga lucha por afianzar su poder, hacia 1060 su dominio sobre Normandía estaba consolidado y por ello comenzó a planear la conquista de Inglaterra, que inició en 1066. El resto de su vida estuvo marcado por incesantes luchas por el mantenimiento de sus posesiones, tanto en Inglaterra como en el norte de Francia, y por las dificultades con su hijo primogénito.
Guillermo era hijo del soltero Roberto I, duque de Normandía, y de su concubina Arlette de Falaise. Su condición de hijo ilegítimo y su juventud le causaron numerosas dificultades cuando sucedió a su padre, así como la anarquía que se extendió por sus dominios en los primeros años de su reinado. Durante su infancia y adolescencia los nobles normandos lucharon entre sí tanto para controlar al joven duque como para beneficio propio. En 1047 Guillermo sofocó una rebelión y comenzó a afianzar su poder sobre el ducado, un proceso que no culminó hasta 1060. En la década de 1050 contrajo matrimonio con Matilde de Flandes, con lo que consiguió un poderoso aliado en el vecino condado de Flandes. En esa misma época Guillermo situó a varios de sus partidarios como obispos y abades de la iglesia normanda. La consolidación del poder le permitió expandir sus horizontes y en 1062 se aseguró la provincia vecina de Maine.
Desde la década de 1050 Guillermo era pretendiente al trono de Inglaterra, entonces en manos de su primo Eduardo el Confesor, que no tenía descendencia. Sin embargo, no era el único que codiciaba la corona inglesa, pues tenía un poderoso rival, el conde inglés Haroldo Godwinson, el cual fue nombrado como su sucesor por el propio rey Eduardo en su lecho de muerte en enero de 1066. Guillermo argumentó que el rey de Inglaterra le había prometido en el pasado que el trono sería suyo y que el propio Haroldo había jurado apoyarlo. Por ello, el duque normando puso en marcha la intervención militar y preparó una gran flota y un poderoso ejército que desembarcó en el sur de Inglaterra en septiembre de 1066 y derrotó a las fuerzas de Haroldo en la batalla de Hastings el 14 de octubre. Guillermo fue coronado rey de Inglaterra en Londres el día de Navidad de 1066. Tras realizar las gestiones necesarias regresó a Normandía en 1067, pero en los siguientes años se produjeron numerosos alzamientos militares ingleses contra los invasores normandos, que no fueron completamente sofocados hasta 1075.
Los últimos años de la vida de Guillermo estuvieron protagonizados por las dificultades en sus dominios del norte de Francia, por problemas con su hijo mayor y por diversas amenazas de invasión de Inglaterra por parte de los danos de Escandinavia. En 1086 Guillermo ordenó la creación del libro Domesday, un exhaustivo registro de la propiedad de todas las tierras de Inglaterra y sus formas de explotación. El rey Guillermo murió en 1087 mientras estaba en una campaña contra sus enemigos en el norte de Francia y fue enterrado en Caen. Su reinado de Inglaterra estuvo marcado por la construcción de un gran número de castillos y fortalezas para afianzar su control, el asentamiento de la nueva nobleza normanda en la isla y el cambio total en la composición del alto clero inglés. No intentó integrar todas sus posesiones en un solo imperio, sino que prefirió administrarlas por separado. A su muerte los dominios fueron divididos: su hijo mayor Roberto se quedó con Normandía y su segundo hijo, Guillermo, con Inglaterra.
Índice
1 Contexto histórico
2 Primeros años
3 Duque de Normandía
3.1 Desafíos
3.2 Consolidación de su poder
3.3 Apariencia y carácter
3.4 Administración normanda
4 Preocupaciones inglesas y continentales
5 Invasión de Inglaterra
5.1 Preparativos de Haroldo
5.2 Preparativos de Guillermo
5.3 Invasión de Tostig y Hardrada
5.4 Batalla de Hastings
5.5 Marcha hacia Londres
6 Consolidación
6.1 Primeras medidas
6.2 Resistencia inglesa
6.3 Asuntos eclesiásticos
7 Problemas en Inglaterra y en el continente
7.1 Ataques daneses y rebelión en el norte
7.2 Rebelión de los condes
7.3 Problemas familiares y en sus dominios
7.4 Últimos años
8 Muerte
9 Guillermo como rey
9.1 Cambios en Inglaterra
9.2 Administración
9.3 Libro Domesday
10 Legado
11 Matrimonio y descendencia
12 Referencias
12.1 Notas aclaratorias
12.2 Notas al pie
12.3 Bibliografía
13 Enlaces externos
Contexto histórico[editar]
Los vikingos comenzaron a atacar las costas de lo que más tarde sería Normandía en el siglo VIII. Su asentamiento definitivo no se produjo hasta inicios del siglo X, cuando Rollón, un caudillo vikingo, llegó a un acuerdo con el rey de Francia Carlos el Simple tras la conquista del condado de Ruan por los guerreros escandinavos. Las tierras alrededor de Ruan fueron el núcleo del posterior ducado de Normandía.3 Estos territorios del norte de Francia fueron usados por los escandinavos para atacar Inglaterra a fines del siglo X, lo que empeoró las relaciones entre ambas regiones. En un intento por acercar posturas entre Inglaterra y Normandía,4 el rey inglés Etelredo II el Indeciso se casó con Emma de Normandía, hermana del duque Ricardo II de Normandía.5
Sin embargo, los ataques de los vikingos a la isla británica no cesaron y Etelredo buscó refugio en Normandía en 1013 después de que el rey Svend I de Dinamarca lo expulsara de su reino. La muerte de este rey al año siguiente permitió el regreso de la familia real inglesa, pero el hijo del monarca danés, Canuto, se opuso a ello. Etelredo murió en 1016 y Canuto se convirtió en rey de Inglaterra, por lo que los hijos de los antiguos monarcas ingleses, Eduardo y Alfredo, tuvieron que permanecer en el exilio en Normandía, mientras que su madre se convirtió en la segunda esposa de Canuto.6
Tras la muerte de Canuto en 1035 le sucedió su hijo Haroldo I Pie de Liebre, fruto de su primer matrimonio, mientras que Canuto Hardeknut, hijo de Emma, llegó a ser rey de Dinamarca. La inestabilidad en Inglaterra obligó a Alfredo a trasladarse a la isla en 1036 para visitar a su madre y desafiar al rey Haroldo, pero solo consiguió acabar muerto en un asunto no aclarado en el que al parecer estuvo implicado el rey. Tras esto, Emma se exilió en Flandes y Hardeknut se convirtió en rey a la muerte de su hermano Haroldo en 1040. Su medio hermano Eduardo le sucedió como rey de Inglaterra tras su muerte en junio de 1042.7
Primeros años
El castillo de Falaise, lugar de nacimiento de Guillermo.
Guillermo nació hacia los años 1027 o 1028 en el castillo de Falaise, Normandía, más probablemente a finales de 1028.1 8 N 2 Fue el único hijo de Roberto I, duque de Normandía, que a su vez era hijo del duque Ricardo II. Su madre, Arlette, era hija de Fulberto de Falaise, que era curtidor o embalsamador. Ella probablemente pertenecía al servicio doméstico de la casa ducal, pero nunca contrajo matrimonio con el duque, sino que lo hizo más tarde con Herluin de Conteville, con el que tuvo dos hijos —Odón, obispo de Bayeux y Roberto, conde de Mortain— y una hija cuyo nombre no ha trascendido. Uno de los hermanos de Arlette, Gualterio, era partidario y protector de Guillermo durante su minoría de edad.9 El duque Roberto I tuvo también una hija, Adelaida, con Arlette u otra concubina.10
El padre de Guillermo, Roberto, se convirtió en duque de Normandía el 6 de agosto de 1027 al suceder a su hermano mayor, Ricardo III, que era duque desde el año anterior.1 Ambos hermanos habían tenido disputas por la sucesión y la muerte de Ricardo fue muy repentina, por lo que algunos historiadores han acusado a Roberto de acabar con su vida, una afirmación plausible pero ahora imposible de demostrar.11 La situación del ducado era inestable, algunas familias se enriquecieron a expensas de la Iglesia en connivencia con el propio duque y Alano III de Bretaña declaró la guerra a los normandos. Hacia 1031 Roberto ya se había ganado el apoyo de la aristocracia, algunos de cuyos miembros serían importantes en el futuro de Guillermo: su tío abuelo Roberto el Danés, arzobispo de Ruan, Osbern, sobrino de Gunnora de Crepon -segunda esposa del duque Ricardo I- y el conde Gilberto de Brionne, nieto de Ricardo I.12 El duque Roberto I apoyó a los príncipes ingleses Alfredo y Eduardo, que estaban exiliados en el norte de Francia.2
Hay indicios de que Roberto pudo estar prometido brevemente con la hija del rey Canuto de Inglaterra, pero no llegaron al altar. No está claro si Guillermo hubiera sido suplantado como heredero en el caso de que su padre hubiera tenido un hijo legítimo, pues algunos duques anteriores también habían sido hijos ilegítimos y la implicación plena de Guillermo en los asuntos de gobierno parecen indicar que era el heredero predilecto del duque.2 En 1034, Roberto I decidió emprender una peregrinación a Jerusalén. Algunos de sus allegados intentaron convencerlo de que no hiciera un viaje tan largo, pero el duque partió en enero de 1035, no sin antes haber conseguido que los hombres fuertes del ducado de Normandía juraran lealtad a Guillermo como su heredero.2 13 El duque Roberto murió a principios de julio de 1035 en Nicea, ciudad del Imperio bizantino, durante el viaje de regreso de Tierra Santa.13
Duque de Normandía
Desafíos
Guillermo hubo de encarar numerosas dificultades tras la muerte de su padre, tanto por su corta edad —como mucho contaba diez años— como por su origen ilegítimo.14 15 Contó con el apoyo del arzobispo Roberto, así como del rey Enrique I de Francia, lo que le permitió conservar el ducado de Normandía.16 La ayuda prestada a los príncipes ingleses exiliados en su intento por regresar a la isla en 1036 demostró que los hombres encargados de gobernar el ducado pretendían continuar con las políticas del fallecido Roberto I.2 Sin embargo, la muerte del arzobispo Roberto en 1037 privó a Guillermo de uno de sus principales sostenes y Normandía pronto cayó en el caos.16
La anarquía en los dominios del joven Guillermo II duró hasta 104717 y poseer la persona del duque fue una de las prioridades de todos los que lucharon por el poder. En principio, Alano de Bretaña recibió la custodia del duque, pero tras su muerte en 1039 o 1040, ocupó su lugar Gilberto de Brionne. Tanto éste como su sucesor en el puesto de tutor y regente, Turchetil, fueron asesinados a los pocos meses. Otro de sus tutores, Osbern, fue asesinado en la habitación de Guillermo a comienzos de la década de 1040, mientras el joven dormía. En otras ocasiones, su tío Gualterio debía ocultarlo en casas de campesinos, aunque este episodio parece ser una licencia del cronista Orderico Vital, a propósito de embellecer su crónica.19 La historiadora Eleanor Searle cree que Guillermo creció junto a tres primos que serían más tarde importantes seguidores suyos: Guillermo FitzOsbern, Roger de Beaumont y Roger de Montgomery.20 Aunque muchos de los nobles normandos se enzarzaron en numerosas disputas particulares durante la minoría de edad de Guillermo, los vizcondes siguieron reconociendo el gobierno ducal y la jerarquía de la Iglesia también apoyaba al duque.21 El rey francés Enrique I tampoco le retiró su apoyo.22
Columna conmemorativa en el lugar en que se libró la batalla de Val-ès-Dunes en 1047.
A fines de 1046 varios opositores a Guillermo II pusieron en marcha una rebelión en la Baja Normandía, rebelión liderada por su primo hermano Guido de Borgoña, conde de Brionne, y apoyada por Nigel, vizconde de Cotentin, y Ranulfo, vizconde de Bessin. Según los relatos, que contienen muchos elementos legendarios, estos intentaron capturar a Guillermo en Valognes, pero el duque consiguió escapar en la oscuridad y encontró refugio en el rey Enrique.23 A comienzos de 1047, Guillermo y Enrique regresaron a Normandía y derrotaron a los señores normandos en la batalla de Val-ès-Dunes, librada cerca de Caen.24 Guillermo de Poitiers afirma que la actuación del duque fue decisiva para la victoria, pero otros relatos más recientes subrayan todo lo contrario, que fueron los hombres del rey francés los que decidieron la suerte de la lucha.2 Guillermo asumió el poder en el ducado de Normandía y muy poco después declaró la tregua de Dios en todos sus dominios, para intentar acabar con la ola de violencia.25 Aunque la batalla de Val-ès-Dunes marcó un punto de inflexión en el control de Guillermo sobre su ducado, no fue el final de su enfrentamiento para imponerse a parte de la nobleza normanda, pues entre 1047 y 1054 se produjeron más conflictos armados y hasta 1060 se sucedieron varias crisis de menor importancia.26
Consolidación de su poder
Escena del Tapiz de Bayeux
que muestra a Guillermo y a sus medio hermanos. Guillermo se sienta en el centro, Odón a la izquierda con las manos levantadas y Roberto a la derecha portando una espada.El siguiente problema que se presentó a Guillermo II fue capturar a Guido de Borgoña, que se retiró a su castillo y allí fue sitiado por las fuerzas del duque. Tras un largo asedio, Guido fue desterrado por Guillermo en 1050.27 Para hacer frente al creciente poder de Godofredo Martel, conde de Anjou,28 el duque volvió a aliarse con Enrique I, rey de Francia, en la que sería la última alianza entre ambos. Aunque consiguieron tomar dos fortalezas (Domfront y Alenzón) que estaban en manos de Godofredo, éste intentó expandir su autoridad al condado de Maine, en la frontera sur del ducado de Normandía, tras la muerte en 1051 de su gobernante, Hugo IV. Allí estaban las posesiones de la poderosa familia de Bellême, vasallos del rey de Francia. Guillermo II y Enrique I lograron expulsar a Godofredo de Maine y el duque normando se convirtió en señor de la familia Bellême, que de esa manera pasó a apoyar los intereses normandos.29 Sin embargo, en 1052 Godofredo Martel y el rey de Francia acordaron aliarse en contra de Guillermo II, al mismo tiempo que otros nobles normandos se rebelaban contra el creciente poder del duque. El cambio de actitud de Enrique I probablemente estuvo motivado por su deseo de controlar Normandía, territorio fortalecido por el liderazgo de Guillermo.30
En 1053 el duque hubo de ir a la guerra contra algunos nobles normandos y contra sus tíos paternos, Mauger, nuevo arzobispo de Ruan y Guillermo de Talou, conde de Arques.32 Al año siguiente, 1054, los rebeldes normandos y el rey de Francia lanzaron una doble invasión de Normandía: el rey en persona lideró el avance a través del condado de Évreux y su hermano Eudes invadió el este del ducado.33 Guillermo tuvo que dividir en dos sus fuerzas: la primera, dirigida por él, se enfrentó al rey Enrique I, y la segunda, comandada por algunos de los más firmes apoyos del duque como Roberto, conde de Eu, Walter Giffard, Roger de Mortemer y Guillermo de Warenne, marchó contra la otra fuerza invasora. El segundo contingente ducal derrotó a Eudes en la batalla de Mortemer. Expulsadas las tropas del rey francés, los apoyos en la Iglesia que tenía Guillermo también depusieron al arzobispo Mauger. La victoria en Mortemer afianzó el poder de Guillermo,34 aunque los enfrentamientos con el monarca francés y el conde de Anjou no cesaron hasta 1060.35 En 1057 Godofredo Martel y Enrique I volvieron a intentar invadir Normandía, pero fueron derrotados por el duque en la batalla de Varaville. Esta fue la última invasión que sufrió el ducado normando en vida de Guillermo,36 y las muertes de Godofredo y de Enrique I en el año 1060 cimentaron la posición del duque.36
Las firmas de Guillermo y Matilde son las dos primeras cruces del Acuerdo de Winchester de 1072.
Otro movimiento que benefició a Guillermo fue su matrimonio con Matilde de Flandes, 
hija del conde Balduino V de Flandes. La unión fue acordada en 1049, pero el papa León IX prohibió el enlace en el Concilio de Reims de octubre de ese año, por motivos no del todo claros.37 N 3 A pesar de ello, el matrimonio se celebró a principios de la década de 105039 N 4 Las relaciones entre el clero normando y el papado eran buenas en la época y, a pesar de la oposición inicial, en 1059 llegará la aprobación del papa Nicolás II,40 a través de un acuerdo que incluía la fundación de dos monasterios en Caen por parte de Guillermo II y su esposa.41 N 5 Este enlace fortaleció a Guillermo porque Flandes era uno de la territorios franceses más poderosos gracias a sus vínculos con la casa real y con los emperadores alemanes.40 Los cronistas coetáneos consideraron que esa unión, que dio como fruto cuatro hijos y cinco o seis hijas, fue todo un éxito.43
hija del conde Balduino V de Flandes. La unión fue acordada en 1049, pero el papa León IX prohibió el enlace en el Concilio de Reims de octubre de ese año, por motivos no del todo claros.37 N 3 A pesar de ello, el matrimonio se celebró a principios de la década de 105039 N 4 Las relaciones entre el clero normando y el papado eran buenas en la época y, a pesar de la oposición inicial, en 1059 llegará la aprobación del papa Nicolás II,40 a través de un acuerdo que incluía la fundación de dos monasterios en Caen por parte de Guillermo II y su esposa.41 N 5 Este enlace fortaleció a Guillermo porque Flandes era uno de la territorios franceses más poderosos gracias a sus vínculos con la casa real y con los emperadores alemanes.40 Los cronistas coetáneos consideraron que esa unión, que dio como fruto cuatro hijos y cinco o seis hijas, fue todo un éxito.43Apariencia y carácter
No se ha encontrado ningún retrato auténtico de Guillermo y las representaciones coetáneas en el Tapiz de Bayeux y en sus sellos y monedas son retratos estereotipados destinados a afianzar su autoridad. Algunos textos afirman que era un hombre fornido y robusto con una voz gutural. Gozó de una excelente salud hasta avanzada edad, aunque engordó mucho en la vejez. Era lo suficientemente fuerte como para doblar arcos que otros no podían tensar y tenía una gran resistencia. Su enemigo Godofredo Martel dijo de él que no tenía rival como luchador y como jinete.46 El examen del fémur de Guillermo, único hueso que ha sobrevivido, pues sus restos fueron destruidos, indica que medía aproximadamente 1,78 m, una gran estatura para la época.44
Se sabe que Guillermo tuvo dos tutores en su infancia y juventud, pero no está claro hasta qué punto era un hombre cultivado. No se tiene constancia de que fuera mecenas de escritores y apenas hay menciones a su patrocinio de la cultura o de cualquier actividad intelectual.2 Orderico Vital afirma que Guillermo trató de aprender el idioma inglés antiguo al final de su vida, pero que fue incapaz de dedicarle el tiempo necesario y enseguida desistió.47 Al parecer, la principal afición de Guillermo el Conquistador fue la caza. Su matrimonio con Matilde fue afectuoso y no han trascendido señales de que Guillermo le fuera infiel, algo nada habitual en los monarcas medievales. Algunos cronistas criticaron a Guillermo por su codicia y crueldad, pero sus contemporáneos elogiaron de manera unánime su piedad.2
Administración normanda
El gobierno normando en época de Guillermo fue similar al que había existido con los duques anteriores. Era una estructura administrativa bastante sencilla construida alrededor de la casa ducal48 que estaba compuesta por varios oficiales, entre ellos administradores, mayordomos y mariscales.49 El duque viajaba constantemente por todos sus dominios, firmando documentos y recaudando impuestos.50 La mayor parte de sus ingresos provenían de las tierras ducales, de los peajes y de algunos impuestos.49
Guillermo cuidó mucho las relaciones con la Iglesia. Participaba en los concilios y nombró a diversos cargos de la Iglesia normanda, entre ellos a Maurilio como arzobispo de Ruan.51 Otra elección importante del duque fue el nombramiento de su medio hermano Odón como obispo de Bayeux.2 También buscó asesoramiento en miembros del clero, caso de Lanfranco de Canterbury, un italiano que llegó a convertirse en uno de los asesores eclesiásticos más destacados de Guillermo desde la década de 1040 hasta la de 1060. Además, el duque fue muy generoso con la Iglesia51 y desde 1035 hasta 1066 la aristocracia normanda fundó al menos veinte nuevos monasterios, entre ellos dos patrocinados por el propio Guillermo en Caen, lo que supuso una importante expansión de la vida religiosa en el ducado de Normandía.52
Preocupaciones inglesas y continentales
Escena del Tapiz de Bayeux con un texto que aclara que Guillermo le está proporcionando armas a Haroldo durante el viaje del conde inglés al continente en 1064.
Al parecer, el rey de Inglaterra Eduardo el Confesor, que no tenía descendencia, eligió en 1051 a Guillermo II de Normandía como su sucesor en el trono. El duque normando era descendiente del tío de Eduardo, Ricardo II de Normandía. La versión «D» de la Crónica anglosajona relata que Guillermo visitó Inglaterra a finales de 1051, puede que para tratar el tema de la sucesión54 o simplemente para buscar apoyos para sus problemas en el norte de Francia,55 aunque precisamente la delicada situación en Normandía en esa época hace poco probable que ese viaje tuviera lugar. Sean cuales fueren los deseos del rey Eduardo, las pretensiones de Guillermo sin duda encontraron la oposición de Godwin, conde de Wessex, cabeza de la familia más poderosa de Inglaterra.54 Eduardo estaba casado desde 1043 con Edith, hija de Godwin, quien además había sido uno de los principales apoyos para que Eduardo accediera al trono inglés.56 A pesar de ello, hacia 1050 las relaciones entre monarca y conde se habían agriado y en 1051 una crisis entre ambas partes culminó con el exilio de la familia de Godwin. Fue durante este exilio cuando Eduardo le ofreció la corona al duque de Normandía.57 En 1052 Godwin regresó acompañado de un ejército, y llegó a un acuerdo con el rey, quien restauró las propiedades a los Godwin. Asimismo, el normando Roberto de Jumièges, que había sido nombrado arzobispo de Canterbury, fue sustituido por Stigand, el obispo de Winchester.58
En 1062 falleció el conde Herberto II de Maine, y Guillermo, que había prometido a su hijo mayor Roberto con la hermana de Herberto, reclamó el condado para su hijo. Los nobles locales se opusieron a ello, por lo que el duque normando invadió el condado en 1064 y se aseguró el control de toda la zona.59 En 1065 Guillermo consiguió que un normando ocupara el cargo de obispo de Le Mans. También permitió a su hijo Roberto Courteheuse hacer homenaje al nuevo conde de Anjou, Godofredo el Barbudo,60 una relación con la que aseguró la frontera occidental de su ducado, colindante con los angevinos. Por el contrario, la frontera con Bretaña no era tan segura, por lo que en 1064 Guillermo decidió invadir el ducado de Bretaña en una campaña de la que se conocen pocos detalles. Se sabe que la intervención normanda desestabilizó Bretaña y obligó al duque Conan II a limitarse a resolver asuntos internos en lugar de intentar una expansión. La muerte del duque bretón en 1066 alejó ese problema y aseguró todas las fronteras de los dominios de Guillermo. A ello se sumó que la intervención normanda consiguió el apoyo de algunos nobles bretones a la invasión de Inglaterra en 1066.61
Al otro lado del canal de la Mancha, en Inglaterra, el conde Godwin falleció en 1053 no sin antes haber dejado a sus hijos bien colocados: Haroldo sucedió a su padre como conde de Wessex y Tostig fue nombrado conde de Northumbria. Otros dos hijos, Gyrth y Leofwine, también consiguieron sendos condados en años posteriores.62 Algunas fuentes afirman que Haroldo participó en la campaña de Guillermo II en Bretaña en 1064 y que entonces el inglés juró respetar la reclamación del normando al trono de Inglaterra,60 pero ningún texto inglés menciona esto y no está claro que realmente sucediera, sino que podría tratarse de mera propaganda normanda para desacreditar a Haroldo.63 Mientras tanto, apareció otro pretendiente al trono, Eduardo el Exiliado, hijo de Edmundo Costilla de Hierro y nieto de Etelredo II el Indeciso, que regresó a Inglaterra en 1057 y, aunque falleció muy poco después, trajo consigo a su familia, que incluía dos hijas, Margarita y Cristina, y un hijo, Edgar Atheling.64
En 1065 Northumbria se rebeló contra Tostig y sus habitantes eligieron como sustituto a Morcar, hermano menor de Edwin, conde de Mercia. Haroldo, en lugar de defender a su hermano, quiso asegurarse el apoyo de Morcar y Edwin en su pretensión al trono y apoyó a los rebeldes. Tostig marchó al exilio en Flandes con su mujer Judit, hermana de Balduino V de Flandes. El rey Eduardo de Inglaterra estaba enfermo y falleció el 5 de enero de 1066. No está claro qué sucedió en su lecho de muerte. Una versión, derivada del documento biográfico Vita Edwardi, afirma que el rey fue atendido por su mujer Edith, por Haroldo, por el arzobispo Stigand y por Robert FitzWimarc, y que en sus últimos días eligió al conde de Wessex como sucesor en el trono. Ni siquiera las fuentes normandas discuten que Haroldo fuera nombrado rey, pero sí que el juramento anterior del conde a Guillermo y que la promesa del rey Eduardo hecha en 1051 al normando no podían ser obviadas en las últimas voluntades del monarca. Otras fuentes inglesas posteriores relatan que Haroldo fue nombrado rey por el clero y por los magnates de Inglaterra.65
Invasión de Inglaterra
Artículo principal: Conquista normanda de Inglaterra
Preparativos de Haroldo
Localización y fechas de los principales eventos de la conquista normanda de Inglaterra.
Haroldo fue coronado rey de Inglaterra el 6 de enero de 1066 en la nueva abadía de Westminster, aunque hay cierta controversia sobre quién ofició la ceremonia. Las fuentes inglesas afirman que fue Aldred, arzobispo de York, mientras que las fuentes normandas sugieren que fue Stigand, que el papado no reconocía como arzobispo canónico.66 Sin embargo, la reclamación del trono por parte de Haroldo no estaba asegurada porque había otros pretendientes, uno de los cuales era su propio hermano exiliado Tostig.67 El rey de Noruega Harald Hardrada también era pretendiente, como tío y heredero del rey Magnus I, que había hecho un pacto hacia 1040 con Canuto Hardeknut.68 Y el último pretendiente era Guillermo de Normandía, para cuya invasión militar hizo casi todos los preparativos el rey Haroldo.
Tostig realizó algunos ataques de prueba en la costa sur de Inglaterra en mayo de 1066 y desembarcó en la isla de Wight ayudado por una flota que le proporcionó su cuñado Balduino V de Flandes. Tostig no recibió mucho apoyo local y después de probar suerte en Lincolnshire y cerca del río Humber, decidió retirarse a Escocia.67 Según el cronista normando Guillermo de Jumièges, el duque normando envió a Haroldo una embajada para recordarle su juramento de lealtad a su reclamación del trono inglés, aunque no es seguro que esta embajada se enviara realmente. Haroldo preparó un ejército y una flota para intentar repeler el ataque de Guillermo y mantuvo tropas y barcos desplegados en el canal de la Mancha durante gran parte del verano.67
Preparativos de Guillermo
El cronista Guillermo de Poitiers afirma que el duque de Normandía convocó un consejo donde los nobles y Guillermo discutieron los riesgos de una invasión de Inglaterra. Aunque es posible que se discutieran algunos pormenores, es improbable que hubiera ningún debate porque el control del duque sobre sus nobles era total y el interés de estos no sería otro más que asegurarse un beneficio de la posible conquista.69 Guillermo de Poitiers también relata que el duque obtuvo el consentimiento para la invasión del papa Alejandro II y que se aseguró el apoyo del emperador Enrique IV del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico y del rey Svend II de Dinamarca. De todas maneras, Enrique IV era todavía menor de edad y Svend II podría estar más interesado en apoyar a Haroldo y hacer con él causa común contra el rey noruego Harald Hardrada, por lo que estas afirmaciones deben ser tomadas con cautela. Aunque es cierto que llegó la aprobación papal una vez que la invasión normanda había tenido éxito, ninguna otra fuente menciona que el sumo pontífice apoyara esta conquista antes de su realización.70 Los hechos posteriores a la invasión, que incluyeron una penitencia de Guillermo, parecían buscar la bendición del papa a las acciones de los normandos. Mientras duró la invasión de Inglaterra, Guillermo dejó el gobierno del ducado en manos de su esposa.2
Representación del cometa Halley en el Tapiz de Bayeux. Este cometa pasó cerca de la Tierra en 1066, y fue considerado un mal augurio para Haroldo II, lo que dio ánimos a las tropas de Guillermo.71
Durante el verano Guillermo juntó un ejército y una flota de invasión en Normandía. Aunque la afirmación de Guillermo de Jumièges de que la flota normanda constaba de tres mil barcos es una clara exageración, la fuerza naval fue sin duda numerosa y además construida desde cero. Los cronistas Guillermo de Jumièges y Guillermo de Poitiers discrepan sobre el lugar en que se construyeron los barcos, pero coinciden en el lugar desde el que partieron, Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. La flota transportaba una fuerza compuesta por soldados de los dominios de Guillermo en Normandía y Maine y un número importante de mercenarios, aliados y voluntarios de Bretaña, el noreste de Francia y Flandes, además de un pequeño número de combatientes procedentes de otras partes de Europa. Todos estaban preparados ya en agosto, pero los vientos adversos obligaron a posponer la partida para finales de septiembre. Quizá influyeron otros factores en el retraso, como los informes de inteligencia procedentes de Inglaterra que informarían del despliegue de tropas de Haroldo por toda la costa. El rey inglés mantuvo a su ejército en alerta durante todo el verano, pero tuvo que disolverlo el 8 de septiembre ante el inicio de la campaña de cosechas en el campo.72
Invasión de Tostig y Hardrada
Tostig, hermano de Haroldo, se alió con el rey noruego Harald Hardrada y ambos invadieron Northumbria en septiembre de 1066, donde derrotaron a las fuerzas locales de Edwin y Morcar en la batalla de Fulford, librada cerca de York. El rey Haroldo tuvo noticia de esta invasión y marchó hacia el norte, derrotando y dando muerte a Hardrada y Tostig el 25 de septiembre en la batalla de Stamford Bridge.68 La flota normanda de Guillermo partió finalmente solo dos días después de este enfrentamiento y desembarcó en la bahía de Pevensey, al sur de Inglaterra, el 28 de septiembre. Guillermo trasladó después a sus hombres a Hastings, unas pocas millas al este, donde ordenó levantar un castillo como base de operaciones. Desde ahí lanzó incursiones que devastaron la zona y esperó el regreso de Haroldo desde el norte sin alejarse de la costa, que era su línea de comunicación con Normandía.72
Batalla de Hastings
Artículo principal: Batalla de Hastings
Tras derrotar a Harald Hardrada y a Tostig, Haroldo dejó a gran parte de su ejército en el norte, incluidos Edwin y Morcar, y marchó con el resto hacia el sur para hacer frente a la temida invasión normanda.72 El rey inglés seguramente tuvo noticia del desembarco de Guillermo mientras viajaba hacia el sur. Se detuvo en Londres y luego continuó hacia Hastings, a donde tardó en llegar alrededor de una semana avanzando unos 43 km diarios73 para recorrer 320 km.74 Aunque Haroldo intentó sorprender a los normandos, los exploradores de Guillermo informaron puntualmente al duque de la llegada de los ingleses. No se conocen con detalle los eventos previos a la decisiva batalla porque las fuentes son contradictorias, pero todas coinciden en que Guillermo salió de su castillo a la cabeza del ejército y fue al encuentro del enemigo.75 Haroldo había decidido tomar una posición defensiva en lo alto de la colina de Senlac —en la actual localidad de Battle (East Sussex)—, a unos 10 km de distancia del castillo levantado por los normandos.76
Escena del Tapiz de Bayeux que retrata la batalla de Hastings,
librada el 14 de octubre de 1066.La batalla comenzó sobre las nueve de la mañana del 14 de octubre y duró todo el día. Se conoce su desarrollo en líneas generales, pero los detalles no están claros por los relatos contradictorios de las fuentes.77 El número de contendientes de ambos bandos era similar, pero mientras que Guillermo contaba con caballería, infantería y arqueros, Haroldo solo tenía infantería y muy pocos o ningún arquero.78 Los soldados ingleses formaron un muro de escudos en lo alto de la colina y en un principio repelieron a los normandos con tanto éxito que los hombres de Guillermo tuvieron que retirarse después de sufrir numerosas bajas. Algunas de las tropas bretonas del duque fueron presa del pánico y huyeron perseguidas por soldados ingleses. En ese momento intervino la caballería normanda y aniquiló a los soldados ingleses, que abandonaron la formación. Durante la huida de los bretones, entre las tropas del duque se extendió la noticia de la muerte de Guillermo, pero este consiguió reordenar a sus hombres. Los normandos fingieron otras dos retiradas para intentar que los ingleses los persiguieran de nuevo y se expusieran a las cargas de caballería.79 Las fuentes son confusas sobre lo que sucedió durante la tarde, pero sin duda el hecho decisivo fue la muerte de Haroldo, sobre la que circulan varias versiones: Guillermo de Jumièges afirma que el rey fue asesinado por el duque en persona, pero el tapiz de Bayeux, tejido varias décadas después, representa a Haroldo con el ojo atravesado por una flecha.
El cadáver de Haroldo fue identificado después de la batalla, ya sea por su armadura o por las marcas en su cuerpo. Los caídos ingleses, entre ellos Gyrth y Leofwine, los dos hermanos de Haroldo, y sus guardias personales, los huscarle, fueron abandonados en el campo de batalla. La madre del rey muerto, Gytha, ofreció a Guillermo el peso de su hijo en oro si le entregaba el cuerpo, pero el normando no aceptó.N 6 En su lugar, Guillermo ordenó que el cuerpo de Haroldo se arrojara al mar, aunque no se sabe dónde. La abadía de Waltham, fundada por Haroldo, dijo tiempo después que el cuerpo del rey fue enterrado allí secretamente.83
Marcha hacia Londres
Los ingleses no se rindieron inmediatamente tras la derrota en Hastings. Muy al contrario, el clero y los magnates británicos nombraron rey a Edgar Atheling, un noble con escasos apoyos. Tras esperar unos días, Guillermo reforzó el dominio de Dover y algunas zonas de Kent y Canterbury, además de enviar una fuerza a tomar Winchester, donde estaba el tesoro real inglés.84 Con esto el duque normando se aseguró el control de su retaguardia y la eventual vía de escape a Normandía si ello era necesario.2 Después, los normandos alcanzaron a finales de noviembre Southwark, frente a Londres pero en la orilla opuesta del Támesis, tras lo que Guillermo decidió dar un rodeo por el sur y el oeste de la ciudad quemando todo a su paso. Cruzaron el río Támesis en Wallingford a principios de diciembre y allí Guillermo recibió la sumisión del arzobispo Stigand. Poco después, en Berkhamsted, se rindieron ante los invasores Edgar Atheling, Morcar, Edwin y el arzobispo Aldred. Guillermo fue coronado rey de Inglaterra en la abadía de Westminster el día de Navidad de 1066.84
Consolidación
Primeras medidas
Guillermo I permaneció en Inglaterra después de su coronación y trató de ganarse a la aristocracia sajona. Los condes supervivientes —Edwin de Mercia, Morcar de Northumbria y Waltheof de Northampton— conservaron sus tierras y títulos.85 Waltheof contrajo matrimonio con Judit, sobrina de Guillermo e hija de Adelaida,86 y se propuso un matrimonio entre Edwin y una de las hijas del nuevo rey. Al parecer, Edgar Atheling también recibió tierras. Los cargos eclesiásticos tampoco sufrieron cambios, e incluso Stigand conservó su arzobispado.85 Sin embargo, la familia de Haroldo sí que perdió sus tierras, al igual que otros que lucharon contra Guillermo en Hastings.87 En marzo de 1067 el nuevo rey había asegurado sus conquistas y regresó a Normandía llevándose con él a Stigand, Morcar, Edwin, Edgar y Waltheof. Dejó en el gobierno de la isla a su hermano Odón, obispo de Bayeux, y a Guillermo FitzOsbern, hijo del que fuera en el pasado uno de sus más firmes apoyos.85 FitzOsbern recibió el título de conde de Wessex y Odón el de conde de Kent.2 Aunque Guillermo dejó a dos normandos a la cabeza del gobierno, los cargos de sheriff siguieron en manos de ingleses.87 De vuelta en el continente, Guillermo fue a Ruan y a la abadía de Fécamp,85 tras lo que asistió a la consagración de nuevas iglesias y de dos monasterios normandos.2
Mientras Guillermo estaba en Normandía, un antiguo aliado, Eustaquio II, conde de Boulogne, intentó sin éxito la conquista de Dover. La resistencia inglesa a los invasores normandos ya había empezado con el ataque de Edric el Salvaje a Hereford y revueltas en Exeter, foco de resistencia de la madre de Haroldo, Gytha.88 FitzOsbern y Odón tuvieron muchas dificultades para controlar a los nativos y por ello pusieron en marcha un ambicioso plan de construcción de castillos que permitieran controlar Inglaterra.2 Guillermo regresó a la isla en diciembre de 1067 y sitió Exeter. La ciudad resistió el asedio dieciocho días y tras su rendición el rey ordenó levantar un castillo en ella para asegurar su dominio. Mientras tanto, los hijos de Haroldo, huidos a Irlanda, comenzaron a atacar en las costas del sur de Inglaterra y desembarcaron en Brístol, donde fueron derrotados por Eadnoth. El domingo de Pascua de 1067 Guillermo estaba de vuelta en Winchester, donde poco después se le unió su esposa Matilde, que fue coronada reina de Inglaterra en mayo de 1068.88
Resistencia inglesa
Véase también: Masacre del Norte
Carta real del 14 de abril de 1069 en la que se donan los terrenos de Deerhurst en Gloucestershire a la abadía de Saint-Denis.
En 1068 Edwin y Morcar iniciaron una revuelta apoyados por Gospatric, conde de Northumbria. El cronista Orderico Vital cuenta que la razón de Edwin para rebelarse contra Guillermo fue que no se le había propuesto casarse con una de sus hijas, pero también pudieron influir otras razones, como el aumento de poder del normando Guillermo FitzOsbern en Herefordshire, dominio que entraba en conflicto con el condado de Edwin. Guillermo marchó a través de las tierras de Edwin y mandó construir el castillo de Warwick. Edwin y Morcar se rindieron, pero Guillermo continuó hasta York y allí ordenó levantar otros dos castillos, en York y en Nottingham, antes de regresar al sur. En el camino de vuelta el rey decidió construir más castillos en Lincoln, Huntingdon y Cambridge, fortificaciones que dejó al mando de seguidores suyos, como William Peverel en Nottingham y Henry de Beaumont en Warwick. A finales de 1068 Guillermo regresó a Normandía.88
A comienzos de 1069 Edgar Atheling se rebeló y atacó York. El rey regresó allí y construyó otro castillo, pero dejó en libertad a Atheling, quien en otoño se alió con el rey Svend II de Dinamarca. El danés había traído una poderosa flota con la que atacó York, Exeter y Salisbury. Con York en su poder, Edgar Atheling fue proclamado rey por sus seguidores, lo que desató una respuesta inmediata de Guillermo, que dejó de atender una revuelta en Maine, Francia, para viajar a Inglaterra y derrotar a los sublevados. En un gesto muy simbólico, Guillermo se paseó con su corona de rey por las ruinas de York el día de Navidad de 1069. De los daneses de Svend II se deshizo pagándoles un danegeld. Después marchó hacia el río Tees arrasando todo a su paso. Edgar huyó hacia Escocia, cuyo rey Malcolm III 
estaba casado con su hermana Margarita. Waltheof y Gospatric, que habían estado implicados en la rebelión, se rindieron y Guillermo permitió que conservaran sus tierras. Sin embargo, el rey no dio por concluido el asunto y durante el invierno marchó a través de la cordillera de los Peninos para derrotar el último reducto rebelde en Shrewsbury y levantar castillos en Chester y Stafford. Esta campaña, que incluyó la quema y destrucción de todo el campo por el que atravesaron las tropas reales, es conocida en la historiografía como «Masacre del Norte». Las operaciones contra la resistencia inglesa finalizaron en abril de 1070, cuando Guillermo volvió a lucir su corona real en Winchester.89
estaba casado con su hermana Margarita. Waltheof y Gospatric, que habían estado implicados en la rebelión, se rindieron y Guillermo permitió que conservaran sus tierras. Sin embargo, el rey no dio por concluido el asunto y durante el invierno marchó a través de la cordillera de los Peninos para derrotar el último reducto rebelde en Shrewsbury y levantar castillos en Chester y Stafford. Esta campaña, que incluyó la quema y destrucción de todo el campo por el que atravesaron las tropas reales, es conocida en la historiografía como «Masacre del Norte». Las operaciones contra la resistencia inglesa finalizaron en abril de 1070, cuando Guillermo volvió a lucir su corona real en Winchester.89Asuntos eclesiásticos
Entrada principal a la abadía de Battle, mandada construir en 1070 por Guillermo I cerca del lugar en que se libró la batalla de Hastings.
Mientras estaba en Winchester en 1070, Guillermo se reunió con tres legados papales —Juan Minutus, Pedro y Ermenfrido de Sion— enviados por el papa Alejandro II. Los legados coronaron ceremonialmente a Guillermo durante la corte celebrada el Domingo de Pascua,91 un hecho que se interpreta como el «sello de aprobación» papal a las conquistas del normando.2 Después los legados y el rey Guillermo celebraron varios concilios eclesiásticos destinados a reformar y reorganizar la Iglesia de Inglaterra. Stigand y su hermano Æthelmær, obispo de Elmham, fueron depuestos de sus obispados, al igual que algunos abades ingleses. En el concilio celebrado en Pentecostés se nombró a Lanfranco como nuevo obispo de Canterbury y a Thomas de Bayeux como nuevo arzobispo de York en sustitución de Aldred, que había fallecido en septiembre de 1069.91 Miembros del clero normando ocuparon los cargos de los abades y obispos ingleses depuestos y al final de esta reordenación de la Iglesia tan solo quedaron dos obispos ingleses y varios prelados de origen continental que fueron nombrados en su momento por el rey Eduardo el Confesor.91 También en 1070 Guillermo ordenó la fundación de la abadía de Battle, un nuevo monasterio cercano al lugar en que se libró la batalla de Hastings, en parte como una penitencia por las muertes causadas en el combate y en parte como memorial a todos los caídos en la batalla.2
Problemas en Inglaterra y en el continente
Ataques daneses y rebelión en el norte
Aunque el rey danés Svend II había prometido marcharse de Inglaterra, regresó en la primavera de 1070 y atacó en la región del río Humber y Anglia Oriental hacia la isla de Ely, donde se unió a Hereward el Proscrito, un noble sajón. Las fuerzas de Hereward atacaron la abadía de Peterborough y la saquearon. Guillermo se deshizo de Svend II y su flota en 107092 y pudo regresar al continente para hacer frente a los problemas en Maine, donde la ciudad de Le Mans se había rebelado el año anterior. Otro problema fue la muerte del conde Balduino VI de Flandes en julio de 1070, lo que provocó una crisis por la sucesión entre su viuda y Roberto, hermano del conde fallecido. La viuda le propuso matrimonio a Guillermo FitzOsbern y este aceptó, pero murió en febrero de 1071 en la batalla de Cassel y Roberto se convirtió en conde. El nuevo gobernante de Flandes se oponía al incremento de poder de Guillermo en el continente, por lo que la batalla de Cassel no solo privó al rey de Inglaterra de uno de sus más importantes apoyos, sino que también alteró el equilibrio de poder en el norte de Francia.93
En 1071 Guillermo sofocó la última revuelta en el norte de Inglaterra. El conde Edwin fue traicionado y asesinado por sus propios hombres y el rey Guillermo consiguió construir un puente que permitió a sus tropas acceder a la pantanosa zona de la isla de Ely, donde estaban atrincherados Hereward el Proscrito y Morcar. Hereward consiguió huir, pero Morcar fue capturado, privado de su condado y encarcelado. En 1072 Guillermo invadió Escocia y derrotó a su rey Malcolm III, quien poco antes había atacado el norte de Inglaterra. Ambos monarcas firmaron la paz con el tratado de Abernethy y probablemente Malcolm tuvo que entregar a su hijo Duncan como rehén. Es probable que en este tratado también se acordara la expulsión de Edgar Atheling de la corte escocesa.94 Después, Guillermo centró su atención de nuevo en Francia y regresó a Normandía a principios de 1073 para enfrentar la invasión de Maine por parte de Fulco IV de Anjou. En una rápida campaña que finalizó el 30 de marzo de ese año, Guillermo arrebató Le Mans a los angevinos y aseguró sus dominios continentales. Sin embargo, el nuevo conde de Flandes, Roberto, aceptó en su corte a Edgar Atheling y casó a su media hermana Berta con el rey de Francia, Felipe I, que era enemigo de los normandos.95
Guillermo viajó a Inglaterra para licenciar a sus tropas en 1073, pero enseguida regresó a Normandía y permaneció allí durante 107496 mientras la isla quedaba en manos de Ricardo FitzGilbert, Guillermo de Warenne97 y Lanfranco. El hecho de que Guillermo no pisara Gran Bretaña durante un año entero indica que había asegurado su control.97 Atheling aprovechó la ausencia del monarca inglés para desplazarse a Escocia desde Flandes. Además, el rey de Francia le entregó a Edgar el estratégico castillo de Montreuil-sur-Mer, cercano al canal de la Mancha,98 pero Guillermo obligó a Atheling a someterse y volver a la corte normanda.96 Felipe I no cejó en su empeño y en 1075 espoleó una revuelta en Bretaña.98
Rebelión de los condes[editar]
El castillo de Norwich, sitiado en 1075 durante la Rebelión de los condes.
En 1075, aprovechando la ausencia del rey, Ralph de Gael, conde de Norfolk, y Roger de Breteuil, conde de Hereford, conspiraron para derrocar a Guillermo en la que se conoció como la «Rebelión de los condes».99 Ralph tenía antepasados bretones y había estado toda su vida anterior a 1066 en Bretaña, donde poseía tierras.100 Roger era normando, hijo de Guillermo FitzOsbern, pero había heredado mucho menos poder que el que tuvo su padre.101 Al parecer la autoridad de Ralph era mucho menor que la que habían gozado sus predecesores en el condado y ello fue probablemente la causa de la revuelta.100
De todas maneras, la causa exacta de esta rebelión no está del todo clara. Se puso en marcha durante la boda de Ralph con una pariente de Roger, celebrada en Exning. También estuvo implicado otro conde, Waltheof, uno de los favoritos de Guillermo, y otros señores bretones que apoyaban a Ralph y Roger. Además, Ralph solicitó ayuda a los daneses. El rey Guillermo no viajó a Inglaterra y dejó que sus hombres sofocaran esta rebelión. Roger no pudo salir de su fortaleza en Herefordshire gracias a los esfuerzos de Wulfstan, obispo de Worcester, y Æthelwig, abad de Evesham. Ralph fue sitiado en el castillo de Norwich por las fuerzas de Odón de Bayeux, Godofredo de Montbray, Ricardo FitzGilbert y Guillermo de Warenne, a pesar de lo cual Ralph dejó Norwich al cargo de su esposa y huyó a Bretaña. El castillo acabó rindiéndose y a su guarnición se le permitió regresar al continente. Mientras tanto, Canuto, hermano del rey de Dinamarca, había llegado a Inglaterra al mando de una flota de doscientos barcos, pero demasiado tarde porque Norwich ya se había rendido. Los daneses atacaron algunas localidades costeras y se marcharon.99 Guillermo volvió a Inglaterra a finales de 1075 para enfrentar la amenaza de los daneses y dejó a su esposa Matilde gobernando en Normandía. Celebró la Navidad en Winchester y se ocupó de los responsables de la rebelión.102 Roger fue encarcelado y Waltheof ejecutado en mayo de 1076. Antes de este fecha el rey hubo de regresar al continente para encarar la rebelión que Ralph había continuado en Bretaña.99
Problemas familiares y en sus dominios[editar]
El conde Ralph se aseguró el control del castillo de Dol y en septiembre de 1076 Guillermo avanzó por Bretaña y puso sitio a la fortaleza. Sin embargo, el rey Felipe I de Francia acudió en auxilio de Ralph y consiguió derrotar a Guillermo y obligarlo a replegarse a Normandía. Aunque esta fue la primera derrota en batalla del rey Guillermo, no tuvo graves consecuencias. Los angevinos atacaron en Maine a fines de 1076 y acabaron derrotados en una acción en la que el propio Fulco IV resultó herido. Más grave para los intereses normandos fue la retirada a un monasterio de Simon de Crépy, conde de Amiens, pues antes de convertirse en monje había entregado su condado de Vexin al rey de Francia. Vexin había sido una región fronteriza y neutral entre Normandía y el reino de Francia y Simon de Crépy aliado de Guillermo. En 1077 el rey de Inglaterra firmó la paz con Felipe I y consiguió una tregua con el conde Fulco de Anjou.103
A finales de 1077 o principios de 1078 comenzaron los problemas entre Guillermo y su hijo mayor, Roberto. El cronista Orderico Vital afirma que los problemas se iniciaron por una pelea entre Roberto y sus dos hermanos menores, Guillermo y Enrique, en la que estos dos arrojaron agua a su hermano mayor. Sin embargo, lo más probable es que el primogénito del rey de Inglaterra sintiera que gozaba de poco poder. Orderico relata que Roberto había exigido infructuosamente gobernar Maine y Normandía, por lo que abandonó el ducado en compañía de un puñado de jóvenes seguidores, muchos de ellos también hijos de los hombres de confianza de Guillermo. Entre estos seguidores de Roberto estaban Roberto de Bellême, Guillermo de Breteuil y Roger, hijo de Ricardo FitzGilbert. El grupo de jóvenes se dirigió al castillo de Rémalard y lo atacaron junto con algunos enemigos de Guillermo.104 La respuesta del rey fue inmediata y los expulsó de Rémalard, pero el rey Felipe I de Francia les ofreció ocupar la fortaleza de Gerberoy en enero de 1079, donde Roberto recibió más refuerzos. Guillermo asedió Gerberoy, pero los sitiados consiguieron burlar el cerco de las fuerzas del rey de Inglaterra y entablaron un combate en el que Guillermo resultó desmontado del caballo por su propio hijo Roberto y fue salvado por la intervención de un soldado inglés. Las fuerzas de Guillermo hubieron de levantar el asedio y el rey regresó a Ruan. El 12 de abril de 1080, padre e hijo llegaron a un acuerdo por el que Roberto recibiría el ducado de Normandía a la muerte de su progenitor.105
Expansión de las áreas bajo el dominio de Guillermo I entre 1072 y 1087.
La noticia de la derrota del rey Guillermo espoleó a sus enemigos en el norte de Inglaterra. En agosto y septiembre de 1079, el rey escocés Malcolm III atacó al sur del río Tweed y durante un mes devastó la zona. La falta de respuesta por parte de los normandos hizo crecer la inquietud entre los habitantes de Northumbria
y por ello en la primavera de 1080 se rebelaron contra Walcher, obispo de Durham y conde de Northumbria. El obispo fue asesinado el 14 de mayo de 1080 y Guillermo hubo de enviar a su medio hermano Odón a ocuparse del asunto.El rey partió de Normandía en julio de 1080107 y en otoño encargó a su hijo Roberto que emprendiera una campaña contra los escoceses. El primogénito atacó en Lothian, forzó a Malcolm III a aceptar sus condiciones y ordenó que se erigiera un castillo en Newcastle upon Tyne mientras regresaba a Inglaterra.106 El rey Guillermo estuvo en Gloucester en la Navidad de 1080 y en Winchester en Pentecostés de 1081; en ambas ocasiones vistió su corona real. En ese período llegó a Inglaterra una embajada papal que solicitó la lealtad del rey al sumo pontífice, algo que Guillermo rechazó.107 En 1081 el monarca inglés estuvo en Gales, aunque las fuentes difieren sobre el propósito de esta visita. La Crónica anglosajona dice que fue una campaña militar, pero las fuentes galesas afirman que se trató de un peregrinaje real a Saint David's. Un biógrafo del rey Guillermo, David Bates, cree más probable la versión de la intervención militar porque el balance de poder había variado recientemente en Gales y seguramente Guillermo quiso aprovechar la circunstancia para extender el poder normando. A finales de 1081, el rey estaba de vuelta en el continente afrontando unos disturbios en Maine que acabaron en un acuerdo negociado por un legado papal.108Últimos años
Los datos sobre las acciones de Guillermo entre 1082 y 1084 son escasos. Según el historiador David Bates, esto significa que en realidad no sucedieron muchas cosas dignas de mención y que Guillermo estuvo en sus dominios continentales, por lo que la Crónica anglosajona no refleja apenas noticias de entonces.109 En 1082 Guillermo ordenó el arresto de su medio hermano Odón por razones nada claras, pues ningún cronista registró información sobre la disputa entre ambos. Tan solo Orderico Vital dejó escrito después que Odón tenía aspiraciones papales y que además trató de persuadir a algunos de los vasallos de Guillermo para que se unieran a una invasión del sur de Italia. Quizá esto fue considerado como una intromisión en la autoridad real que Guillermo quiso castigar. Odón permaneció encarcelado el resto del reinado de Guillermo, pero no perdió sus tierras. En 1083 surgieron nuevos problemas cuando el hijo del rey, Roberto, se rebeló una vez más con el apoyo del rey de Francia, Felipe I. Otro duro golpe para Guillermo fue la muerte de su esposa Matilde el 2 de noviembre de 1083, a la que siempre estuvo muy unido.110
Los problemas en Maine se perpetuaron con la rebelión de Huberto de Beaumont, probablemente en 1084. Huberto fue sitiado en su castillo de Sainte-Suzanne durante al menos dos años, pero finalmente firmó la paz con el rey y volvió a gozar de su favor. No están claros los movimientos del rey en 1084 y 1085. Estaba en Normandía el Domingo de Pascua de 1084, pero probablemente también había estado en Inglaterra antes de esa fecha para recaudar el dinero necesario para pagar un danegeld al rey Canuto IV de Dinamarca y evitar así su invasión. Las fuerzas normandas e inglesas estuvieron en alerta durante 1085 y 1086 ante la amenaza danesa, pero esta desapareció con el asesinato de Canuto en julio de 1086.111
Muerte
Guillermo partió de Inglaterra a finales de 1086. Nada más regresar al continente, casó a su hija Constanza con Alano IV, conde de Bretaña, siguiendo su política de buscar aliados contra la monarquía francesa. Su hijo Roberto, aliado del rey francés, seguía creando problemas hasta el punto de que su padre lideró una expedición contra la región francesa del Vexin en julio de 1087. Mientras asediaba Mantes, Guillermo cayó enfermo o se hirió con su silla de montar,112 por lo que fue trasladado al priorato de San Gervasio de Ruan, donde falleció el 9 de septiembre de 1087. No se conocen con detalle los eventos que precedieron a su muerte porque hay dos versiones distintas. Orderico Vital dejó un extenso relato salpicado con discursos de muchos de los implicados, pero más bien parece ser la historia de cómo debía morir un rey que una narración fidedigna de lo sucedido. La otra versión es De Obitu Willelmi —Sobre la muerte de Guillermo—, que se ha probado una copia de dos escritos del siglo IX con los nombres cambiados.
Guillermo dejó Normandía a Roberto y la custodia de Inglaterra a su segundo hijo, Guillermo, que de esa manera se convertiría en rey. El hijo menor, Enrique, heredó dinero. Después de encomendarle el gobierno de Inglaterra, Guillermo padre envió a su hijo Guillermo de vuelta a Gran Bretaña el 7 o el 8 de septiembre con una carta en la que pedía a Lanfranco que ayudara al nuevo y joven monarca. El rey Guillermo también dejó donaciones a la Iglesia, dinero que se distribuyó entre los pobres y ordenó la liberación de algunos presos, entre ellos su medio hermano Odón.
Tumba de Guillermo el Conquistador en la Abadía de los Hombres de Caen. La inscripción en latín dice: «Aquí reposa el invencible Guillermo el Conquistador, duque de Normandía y rey de Inglaterra, fundador de esta casa, que murió en el año 1087».
La muerte de Guillermo el Conquistador provocó algunos disturbios, por lo que todos los que lo acompañaron en su lecho de muerte dejaron su cuerpo en Ruan y corrieron a defender sus intereses. Finalmente, el clero de Ruan se las arregló para trasladar el cuerpo a Caen, pues el monarca dejó dicho que quería ser enterrado en la Abadía de los Hombres que él mismo había fundado. El funeral, al que asistieron los obispos y abades de Normandía y su hijo Enrique, resultó enturbiado por las palabras de un ciudadano de Caen que dijo que su familia había sido despojada ilegalmente de las tierras sobre las que se levantaba la iglesia. Después de unas comprobaciones apresuradas, se demostró que el hombre tenía razón y fue compensado. Sucedió otro incidente cuando el cuerpo era introducido en la tumba, pues el hueco era demasiado pequeño y cuando se forzó el cadáver para que cupiera, este se abrió y esparció un olor desagradable por todo el templo.113
En la actualidad una losa de mármol con una inscripción en latín, colocada en el siglo XIX, marca el enterramiento de Guillermo.
La tumba ha sido alterada varias veces desde 1087, la primera de ellas en 1522, cuando fue abierta por orden de la Santa Sede. En aquella ocasión el cuerpo se dejó intacto, pero en 1562, durante las Guerras de religión de Francia, la tumba se profanó y los restos del rey fueron esparcidos, con lo que se perdieron todos salvo un fémur. En 1642 este único resto de Guillermo fue enterrado de nuevo bajo una lápida, la cual fue sustituida un siglo después por un monumento más elaborado. Esta tumba volvió a resultar destruida en la Revolución francesa, y a principios del siglo XIX se colocó la lápida que se puede contemplar hoy.
Guillermo como rey
Cambios en Inglaterra
La Torre Blanca de Londres, comenzada por orden de Guillermo I.
Con la finalidad se asegurar el control normando sobre Inglaterra, Guillermo ordenó construir numerosos castillos y fortalezas por todo el reino, entre ellos la Torre Blanca de la Torre de Londres. Estos castillos permitían a los normandos atrincherarse en un lugar seguro cuando se veían amenazados por alguna rebelión y daban cobijo a las guarniciones en los años posteriores a la conquista. Las primeras fortalezas eran simples empalizadas de madera y tierra, pero con el paso del tiempo fueron sustituidas por estructuras de piedra.115 En un principio los señores normandos mantuvieron a sus caballeros y les pagaron de su bolsillo, pero con el paso del tiempo se les entregaron sus propios feudos con los que ganarse la vida. Guillermo también exigía a sus nobles contribuir con cuotas fijas de caballeros no solo para las campañas militares, sino también para las guarniciones que controlaban Inglaterra.116
Cuando murió Guillermo, y tras numerosas rebeliones inglesas contra los invasores, la mayor parte de la aristocracia anglosajona había sido reemplazada por señores de Normandía y de otras partes del continente. No todos los nobles que acompañaron a Guillermo en la conquista adquirieron grandes extensiones de tierra, pues algunos se mostraron reacios a hacerse cargo de ellas en un reino que estaba lejos de ser pacífico. Aunque algunos de los nuevos ricos normandos que se establecieron en Inglaterra procedían de la familia de Guillermo y de la alta nobleza normanda, otros eran de orígenes relativamente humildes.117 El nuevo rey normando arrebató tierras a terratenientes ingleses y se las dio a muchos de los que lo siguieron desde el continente. En algunas ocasiones los terrenos expropiados y entregados a los normandos eran los que rodeaban un nuevo castillo, una medida que facilitaba el control de toda la zona.118
El cronista medieval Guillermo de Malmesbury afirma que el rey Guillermo expropió y despobló una enorme extensión de terreno (36 parroquias) para crear el New Forest, una zona boscosa del sur de Inglaterra donde practicar su gran pasión, la caza. Los historiadores modernos han llegado a la conclusión de que la despoblación de esta región no fue tan exagerada y que en realidad ese bosque era un terreno poco fértil que ya antes de la llegada de los normandos y de convertirse en bosque real apenas contaba con habitantes. Guillermo era un apasionado de la caza y por ello promulgó la ley forestal en varias zonas de Inglaterra, con la que reguló quién podía cazar y qué podía ser cazado.119
Administración
Moneda inglesa de Guillermo el Conquistador.
Después de 1066 Guillermo no intentó integrar sus distintos dominios en un reino unificado con el mismo conjunto de leyes. Su sello posterior a la conquista de Inglaterra, del que se conservan seis ejemplares, destacaba su nuevo estatus como rey y mencionaba por separado su título ducal. Las administraciones de Normandía, Inglaterra y Maine eran sustancialmente distintas y siempre funcionaron por separado.120
Guillermo se hizo cargo de un gobierno inglés que era más complejo que el normando. Inglaterra estaba dividida en shires o condados, a su vez subdivididos en centenas. Cada condado era administrado por un oficial real llamado sheriff, que tenía un rango similar al de un vizconde normando y era responsable de administrar la justicia real y recaudar impuestos.49 Para supervisar sus amplios dominios, Guillermo tuvo que viajar mucho más que cuando solo era duque y se calcula que atravesó el canal de la Mancha en al menos diecinueve ocasiones entre 1067 y la fecha de su muerte. Desde el año de la conquista hasta 1072, el rey estuvo la mayor parte del tiempo en Inglaterra, pero de ahí en adelante permaneció mucho más tiempo en Normandía.121 El gobierno se desplazaba junto a Guillermo, por lo que frecuentemente se tomaban decisiones sobre cada uno de sus dominios desde lugares muy distantes y estas se trasmitían a través de cartas y otros documentos. Guillermo también delegaba en personas de confianza que podían tomar decisiones en su ausencia, especialmente si esta iba a ser muy larga. Estos delegados solían ser miembros de su familia, en especial su medio hermano Odón y su esposa Matilde, y en otras ocasiones se nombraban personas expertas en algún tema específico.122
El nuevo rey siguió recaudando el danegeld, un impuesto a la tierra, la única tasa universal que existía en Europa occidental en la época. Era una contribución anual basada en el valor de las tierras de cada propietario y cuya cantidad también variaba en función de las necesidades económicas del gobierno real.123 Las monedas inglesas poseían un alto contenido de plata y se reacuñaban de manera obligatoria cada tres años. La moneda normanda tenía menos plata, era de menor calidad artística y raramente se volvía a acuñar. Además, en Inglaterra no era moneda de curso legal la que hubiera sido acuñada fuera de la isla, mientras que en el continente sucedía todo lo contrario. No hay evidencias de que los peniques ingleses circularan por el continente, lo que demuestra que no hubo mucho empeño en integrar los sistemas monetarios de Normandía e Inglaterra.120
Además de los impuestos, el gobierno de Guillermo se enriqueció por los grandes latifundios de Inglaterra. Como heredero del rey Eduardo el Confesor, todas las tierras reales acabaron en manos de Guillermo, a las que se sumaron las grandes posesiones de la familia del derrotado Haroldo, lo que convirtió al rey de origen normando en el mayor terrateniente de toda la historia de Inglaterra con mucha diferencia.124
Libro Domesday✺
Artículo principal: Libro Domesday
Página de Warwickshire en el Libro Domesday.
En la Navidad de 1085 Guillermo ordenó la creación de un exhaustivo censo de sus tierras y las de sus vasallos por toda Inglaterra, un trabajo que hoy se conoce como Libro Domesday. El censo está dividido en condados y especifica las propiedades de cada terrateniente. Asimismo, describe el tipo de explotación, quién era el propietario del terreno antes de la conquista normanda, su valor, los impuestos que debía pagar y también el número de campesinos, arados y otros recursos del terreno. Los municipios están en un listado separado. En este minucioso libro están todos los condados ingleses al sur de los ríos Tees y Ribble. El censo parece haber finalizado el 1 de agosto de 1086, cuando se afirma en la Crónica anglosajona que Guillermo recibió los resultados y todos los magnates hicieron el Juramento de Salisbury, una renovación de sus juramentos de lealtad.125 No sabemos la finalidad exacta que perseguía el rey con el Libro Domesday, pero sin duda tenía varios propósitos, tales como servir de registro de las obligaciones feudales y como justificación para un aumento de impuestos.2
Legado
Monumento a Guillermo el Conquistador en Falaise, su lugar de nacimiento.
La consecuencia inmediata de la muerte de Guillermo fue una guerra entre sus hijos Roberto y Guillermo por el control de Inglaterra y Normandía.2 Incluso después de la muerte de Guillermo II en 1100 y la sucesión de su hermano Enrique como rey de Inglaterra, el control de ambos territorios fue motivo de disputa entre los hijos de Guillermo hasta la captura de Roberto por parte de Enrique en la batalla de Tinchebray en 1106. Estas dificultades en la sucesión llevaron a una pérdida de autoridad en Normandía que permitió que la aristocracia recuperara mucho del poder que le había arrebatado Guillermo el Conquistador. Además, sus hijos perdieron gran parte del control sobre Maine, una región que se rebeló en 1089 y logró liberarse de mucha de la influencia normanda.126
El impacto de la conquista de Guillermo en Inglaterra fue grande, pues acarreó profundas alteraciones en la Iglesia, la aristocracia y el idioma del reino que persisten de alguna manera hasta la actualidad. La invasión forjó lazos entre Inglaterra y Francia que duraron toda la Edad Media. Otra consecuencia de la invasión fue la ruptura de la fuerte relación anterior entre Inglaterra y los reinos escandinavos. El gobierno de Guillermo aglutinó elementos de los sistemas inglés y normando y sentó las bases del posterior reino medieval inglés. Como de abruptos y duraderos fueron los cambios es tema que todavía debaten los historiadores, aunque algunos como Richard Southern están convencidos de que esta conquista fue el cambio más radical sufrido por un territorio europeo entre la caída del Imperio romano y el siglo XX. Otros estudiosos, como H. G. Richardson y G. O. Sayles, opinan que los cambios en Inglaterra no fueron tan profundos.127 La historiadora Eleanor Searle describe la invasión de Inglaterra por parte de Guillermo como «un plan que nadie, salvo un gobernante escandinavo, hubiera considerado».
El reinado de Guillermo ha sido motivo de controversia historiográfica desde el mismo momento de su muerte. El cronista Guillermo de Poitiers escribió elogiosamente sobre los beneficios del gobierno del normando, pero el obituario de Guillermo en la Crónica anglosajona condena sus acciones en términos muy duros.127 A lo largo de la historia varios políticos y líderes británicos han recurrido a Guillermo y los eventos de su reinado para ilustrar sucesos de la historia inglesa. En época de la reina Isabel I —siglo XVI—, el arzobispo Matthew Parker veía que la conquista había corrompido a una Iglesia inglesa muy pura que él mismo se empeñó en restaurar. En los siglos XVII y XVIII algunos historiadores y legisladores opinaban que Guillermo había impuesto un «yugo normando» a los anglosajones nativos de la isla, un argumento que perduró hasta el siglo XIX dentro del discurso del nacionalismo inglés. Estas controversias sobre su persona y acciones han llevado a que Guillermo I sea visto por unos como el creador de la grandeza de Inglaterra y por otros como el artífice de una de las mayores derrotas del pueblo inglés en toda su historia.129
Matrimonio y descendencia
Guillermo y su esposa Matilde de Flandes tuvieron al menos nueve hijos.43 El orden de nacimiento de los varones está claro, pero ninguna fuente aclara el de las hijas:2
Roberto nació entre 1051 y 1054 y murió el 10 de febrero de 1134.43 Fue duque de Normandía y se casó con Sibila de Conversano, hija de Godofredo de Conversano.130
Ricardo nació antes de 1056 y murió hacia 1075.43
Guillermo nació entre 1056 y 1060 y murió asesinado el 2 de agosto de 1100 en el New Forest.43 131
Enrique nació a finales de 1068 y falleció el 1 de diciembre de 1135.43 Fue rey de Inglaterra y se casó primero con Edith de Escocia, hija de Malcolm III de Escocia, y después con Adela de Lovaina.132
Adelaida murió antes de 1113. Al parecer fue prometida de Haroldo II de Inglaterra y probablemente monja en Saint Léger de Préaux.133
Cecilia nació antes de 1066 y murió en 1127. Fue abadesa de la Abadía de las Damas de Caen.43
Matilde2 nació hacia 1061 y pudo morir en torno a 1086.132 Es mencionada en el Libro Domesday como hija de Guillermo.43
Constanza murió en 1090. Se casó con Alano IV, duque de Bretaña.43
Adela murió en 1137. Contrajo matrimonio con Esteban II, conde de Blois, y fue la madre del rey Esteban I de Inglaterra.43
Águeda (posible) prometida de Alfonso VI de León, rey de León, de Galicia y de Castilla.
No hay evidencias de que Guillermo tuviera hijos ilegítimos.134
Predecesor:
Roberto I de Normandía Duque de Normandía
1035 – 1087 Sucesor:
Roberto II de Normandía
Predecesor:
Harold de Wessex Rey de Inglaterra
1066 – 1087 Sucesor:
Guillermo II el Rojo
Referencias✺
Notas aclaratorias✺
Volver arriba ↑ También se le llama «Guillermo el Bastardo» en fuentes escritas por no normandos.2
Volver arriba ↑ No se conoce la fecha exacta del nacimiento de Guillermo I. El cronista Orderico Vital afirma que tenía 64 años cuando murió, lo que situaría su nacimiento hacia 1023, pero este mismo cronista dice en otra ocasión que Guillermo tenía 8 años cuando su padre marchó a Tierra Santa en 1035, lo que sitúa su nacimiento en 1027. Guillermo de Malmesbury afirma que tenía 7 años cuando su padre partió, por lo que su nacimiento se produciría en 1028. Otra fuente, De Obitu Willelmi, deja constancia de que Guillermo tenía 59 años cuando falleció en 1087, lo que lleva su nacimiento hacia 1028 o 1029.9
Volver arriba ↑ Las razones para esta desaprobación papal no se aclaran en ninguna fuente. Tan solo el cronista Orderico Vital deja entrever que los contrayentes tenían un parentesco demasiado cercano, pero no da más detalles.38
Volver arriba ↑ No se sabe la fecha exacta de la boda, pero debió celebrarse en 1050/1052.37
Volver arriba ↑ Los monasterios eran la Abadía de los Hombres (o de San Esteban) fundada por Guillermo y la Abadía de las Damas (o de la Santísima Trinidad) fundada por Matilde unos cuatro años después.42
Volver arriba ↑ Guillermo de Malmesbury afirma que el normando aceptó el ofrecimiento de Gytha, pero Guillermo de Poitiers dice que lo rechazó. Los biógrafos modernos de Haroldo están de acuerdo en que Guillermo rechazó esa propuesta.81 82
Bates "William I (known as William the Conqueror)" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Dictionary of National Biography
Volver arriba ↑ Barlow, "William II (c.1060–1100)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
↑ Saltar a: a b Fryde, et al., Handbook of British Chronology, p. 35
Volver arriba ↑ Van Houts, Adelida (Adeliza) (d. before 1113)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
Volver arriba ↑ Given-Wilson y Curteis, Royal Bastards, p. 59
Bibliografía✺
Asimov, Isaac (1982). La formación de Inglaterra. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. ISBN 84-206-1907-8.
Bates, David (2001). William the Conqueror. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1980-3.
Carpenter, David (2004). The Struggle for Mastery: The Penguin History of Britain 1066–1284. Nueva York: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-014824-8.
Clanchy, M. T. (2006). England and its Rulers: 1066–1307. Blackwell Classic Histories of England (tercera edición). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0650-6.
Collins, Roger (1999). Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 (Segunda edición). Nueva York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-21886-9.
Douglas, David C. (1964). William the Conqueror: The Norman Impact Upon England. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press. OCLC 399137.
Fryde, E. B.; Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. (1996). Handbook of British Chronology (tercera edición). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56350-X.
Given-Wilson, Chris; Curteis, Alice (1995). The Royal Bastards of Medieval England. Nueva York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 1-56619-962-X.
Huscroft, Richard (2009). The Norman Conquest: A New Introduction. Nueva York: Longman. ISBN 1-4058-1155-2.
Huscroft, Richard (2005). Ruling England 1042–1217. Londres: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0-582-84882-2.
Lawson, M. K. (2002). The Battle of Hastings: 1066. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 0-7524-1998-6.
Marren, Peter (2004). 1066: The Battles of York, Stamford Bridge & Hastings. Battleground Britain. Barnsley, UK: Leo Cooper. ISBN 0-85052-953-0.
Rex, Peter (2005). Harold II: The Doomed Saxon King. Stroud, UK: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7394-7185-2.
Searle, Eleanor (1988). Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06276-0.
Van Houts, Elisabeth (2002). «Les femmes dans l'histoire du duché de Normandie (Las mujeres en la historia del ducado de Normandía)». Tabularia "Études" (en francés) (2): 19-34.
Walker, Ian (2000). Harold the Last Anglo-Saxon King. Gloucestershire, UK: Wrens Park. ISBN 0-905778-46-4.
Williams, Ann (2003). Æthelred the Unready: The Ill-Counselled King. Londres: Hambledon & London. ISBN 1-85285-382-4.
Enlaces externos✺
Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Guillermo I de Inglaterra.
Château Guillaume-le-Conquérant (Falaise/Francia)
Guillermo el Conquistador (en inglés)
Guillermo de Poitiers: Hechos de Guillermo II, duque de los normandos (Gesta Guillelmi II ducs Normannorum).
Texto francés, con introducción y anotaciones en este idioma de François Guizot, en el sitio de Philippe Remacle (1944 - 2011): extraído de la obra de Guizot Collection des mémoires relatifs a l'Histoire de France; ed. en París.
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